<p>Tegea  was a settlement in ancient Arcadia, and it is also a former municipality in Arcadia, Peloponnese, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Tripoli, of which it is a municipal unit. The municipal unit has an area of 118.350 km. Its seat was the village Stadio.</p><br>
<p>The reputed prehistoric founder of Tegea was Tegeates, a son of Lycaon.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Ancient Tegea was an important religious center of ancient Greece, containing the Temple of Athena Alea. The temenos was founded by Aleus, Pausanias was informed. Votive bronzes at the site from the Geometric and Archaic periods take the forms of horses and deer; there are sealstones and fibulae. In the Archaic period the nine villages that underlie Tegea banded together in a synoecism to form one city. Tegea was listed in Homer&#39;s Catalogue of Ships as one of the cities that contributed ships and men for the Achaean assault on Troy.</p><br>
<p>Tegea struggled against Spartan hegemony in Arcadia and was forced into some form of collaboration by 530 BCE, during king Anaxandridas II’s reign, maybe as one of the earliest members of what would become the Sparta-centered Peloponnesian League. In the 4th century Tegea joined the Arcadian League and struggled to free itself from Sparta. The Temple of Athena Alea burned in 394 BC and was magnificently rebuilt, to designs by Scopas of Paros, with reliefs of the Calydonian boar hunt in the main pediment.</p><br>
<p>Pausanias visited the city in the 2nd century CE. The "tombs" he saw there were shrines to the chthonic founding daemones: "There are also tombs of Tegeates, the son of Lycaon, and of Maira (or Maera), his wife." Maira was a daughter of Atlas, and Homer makes mention of her in the passage where Odysseus tells to Alkinous his journey to Hades, and of those whose ghosts he beheld there."</p><br>
<p>The city retained civic life under the Roman Empire; Tegea survived being sacked by the Goths in AD 395–396.</p><br>
<p>In the Middle Ages, through some unclear process, Tegea received the name of Amyklion (later usually shortened to Amykli and Nikli) by the 10th century. In 1082, it became the seat of the Diocese of Amyclae, a suffragan see of the Metropolis of Lacedaemon. Nikli and the rest of Arcadia were captured by the Crusaders in c. 1206–09, becoming part of the new Frankish Principality of Achaea, which soon came to encompass most of the Peloponnese. The Chronicle of the Morea depicts Nikli as a site of some importance and fortified, which fell to the Crusaders only after a siege. It became the seat of a secular barony, while a Roman Catholic bishop was installed in the episcopal see. Nikli was still in Frankish hands in 1280, but was lost to the resurgent Byzantines by 1302, who also restored the local see to the Orthodox clergy.</p><br>
<p>The site of ancient Tegea is now located within the modern village of Alea (referred to as Piali before 1915). Alea is located about 10 kilometers southeast of Tripoli. The municipality of Tegea has its seat at Stadio.</p><br>
<h3>Tegea and Crete</h3><br>
<p>In ancient times, the people of Tegea said that Cydon, Archedius, and Gortys, the surviving sons of their king Tegeates, migrated voluntarily to Crete, and that the cities Kydonia, Gortyna, and Catreus, were named after them. Yet the Cretans denied this; instead they tried to portray these three characters as the offspring of the local heroes Minos and Rhadamantus.</p><br>
<h2>Subdivisions</h2><br>
<p>The municipal unit Tegea is subdivided into the following communities (constituent villages in brackets):</p><br>
<p>Alea</p><br>
<p>Episkopi</p><br>
<p>Garea</p><br>
<p>Kamari</p><br>
<p>Kandalos</p><br>
<p>Kerasitsa, where the politician Gregoris Lambrakis was born in 1912</p><br>
<p>Lithovounia</p><br>
<p>Magoula (Magoula, Giokareika)</p><br>
<p>Manthyrea</p><br>
<p>Mavriki</p><br>
<p>Psili Vrysi (Psili Vrysi, Bouzaneika)</p><br>
<p>Rizes</p><br>
<p>Stadio (Stadio, Agios Sostis, Akra)</p><br>
<p>Tzivas</p><br>
<p>Vouno</p><br>
<p>Strigkos (Strigkos, Demiri)</p><br>
<h2>Historical population</h2><br>
<h2>Notable people</h2><br>
<p>Aristarchus of Tegea, poet (5th century BC)</p><br>
<p>Anyte of Tegea, poet (3rd century BC)</p><br>
<p>Cepheus, mythical king and an Argonaut</p><br>
<p>Echemus, mythical king</p><br>
<p>Gregoris Lambrakis, politician</p><br>
<p>Telephus, mythical king</p><br>
<p>The Beaufort Sea  is a marginal sea of the Arctic Ocean, located north of the Northwest Territories, the Yukon, and Alaska, west of Canada&#39;s Arctic islands. The sea is named after hydrographer Sir Francis Beaufort. The major Mackenzie River empties into the Canadian part of the sea, west of Tuktoyaktuk, which is one of the few permanent settlements on the sea shores.</p><br>
<p>The sea, characterized by severe climate, is frozen over most of the year. Historically, only a narrow pass up to 100 km opened in August–September near its shores, but recently due to climate change in the Arctic the ice-free area in late summer has greatly enlarged. Claims that the seacoast was populated about 30,000 years ago have been largely discredited (see below); present population density is very low. The sea contains significant resources of petroleum and natural gas under its shelf, such as the Amauligak field. They were discovered in the period between the 1950s and 1980s, and their exploration became the major human activity in the area since the 1980s. The traditional occupations of fishery and whale and seal hunting are practiced only locally, and have no commercial significance. As a result, the sea hosts one of the largest colonies of beluga whales, and there is no sign of overfishing. To prevent overfishing in its waters, the US adopted precautionary commercial fisheries management plan in August 2009. In April 2011 the Canadian government signed a memorandum of understanding with the Inuvialuit as a first step in developing a larger ocean management plan. The Canadian government announced in October 2014 that no new commercial fisheries in the Beaufort Sea will be considered until research has shown sustainable stocks that would be made available to Inuvialuit first.</p><br>
<p>The Canadian government has set a new block of the Beaufort Sea off the Parry Peninsula in the Amundsen as a Marine Protected Area (MPA). The protected area is set to protect species and habits for the Inuvialuit community.</p><br>
<h2>Extent</h2><br>
<p>The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Beaufort Sea as follows:</p><br>
<p>On the North. A line from Point Barrow, Alaska, to Lands End, Prince Patrick Island ({{coord|76|16|N|124|08|W|display=inline}}).</p><br>
<p>On the East. From Lands End through the Southwest coast of Prince Patrick Island to Griffiths Point, thence a line to Cape Prince Alfred, the Northwestern extreme of Banks Island, through its West coast to Cape Kellet, the Southwestern point, and thence a line to Cape Bathurst on the mainland ({{coord|70|36|N|127|32|W|display=inline}}).</p><br>
<h2>Border dispute</h2><br>
<p>There is an unresolved dispute involving a wedge-shaped slice on the International Boundary in the Beaufort Sea, between the Canadian territory of Yukon and the U.S. state of Alaska. Canada claims the maritime boundary to be along the 141st meridian west out to a distance of 200 nmi, following the Alaska–Yukon land border. The position of the United States is that the boundary line is perpendicular to the coast out to a distance of 200 nmi, following a line of equidistance from the coast. This difference creates a wedge with an area of about 21,000 km&sup2; that is claimed by both nations.</p><br>
<p>Canada&#39;s position has its roots in the Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1825) between the United Kingdom and the Russian Empire that set the boundary between the two. Canada is the successor state to Great Britain in relation to this treaty, which stipulates:</p><br>
<p>Canada maintains that this treaty is extensible from the land into the Beaufort Sea along the meridian. The United States rejects this extension and instead asserts a boundary line based upon equidistance, although its position is somewhat undermined by its acceptance in 1867 of similar treaty wording and a similar interpretation under the treaty whereby it acquired Alaska. This dispute has taken on increased significance due to the possible presence of natural reserves within the wedge, Because of this, Canada argues that "special circumstances" apply to this border, a position that the U.S. rejects. This dispute is in this respect a mirror image of the dispute between the U.S. and Canada over the Gulf of Maine, where the U.S. argued for "special circumstances" and Canada argued for the equidistance principle. (It is to be noted that in that latter dispute, both of those arguments were rejected, and the border was drawn based upon geometric principles taking into account geographic factors.) Neither the U.S. nor Canada has pressed for a swift resolution for the matter, or arbitration at the International Court of Justice, however; and the two have in the meantime cooperated in several measures aimed at preserving the maritime environment.</p><br>
<p>Before the end of 2004, the US leased eight plots of land below the water for oil exploration and exploitation, provoking a diplomatic protest from Canada. On 20 August 2009, United States Secretary of Commerce Gary Locke announced a moratorium on commercial fishing of the Beaufort Sea north of Alaska, including the disputed waters. In July 2010, US–Canada negotiations have started in Ottawa with the next meeting planned in 2011. A joint geological survey of the area has been initiated, and the issue was marked as settled by the CIA World Factbook, though no official document has been released by September 2010.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Several rivers such as the Kongakut River in Alaska and the Firth River in Yukon empty into the Beaufort. The major river to flow into the sea is the Mackenzie, Canada&#39;s longest, which empties into the Canadian part of the sea, west of Tuktoyaktuk. The coastal shelf area is rather narrow, especially near and east of Point Barrow in the Alaskan part of the sea, and contains numerous submarine valleys. It becomes wider near the delta of the Mackenzie River but nowhere exceeds 145 km. Near the coast, the depths are shallower than 60 m but they rapidly increase northwards up to a few kilometers, transforming into a massive platform which is geologically similar to that of the oceans. There are many small islands in the sea and in the delta of the Mackenzie River. A few larger ones lie west of the Mackenzie River, such as Herschel Island (4 km off the shore, area 18 km&sup2;) and Barter Island (0.3 km from the coast, area 13 km&sup2;). The coasts are low, with the maximum elevations between 250 and. The soil is frozen all year around at the depth below about 1 m or less, forming permafrost, and only top few tens of centimeters thaws in summer. Consequently, buildings have to be elevated above ground on wooden piles that are immersed into the permafrost.</p><br>
<h2>Hydrology and climate</h2><br>
<p>The Beaufort Sea is frozen over through the year, except for August and September when the ice breaks near the coast and opens what was once a 50 – wide strip of open water. During the 2000s, due to climate change in the Arctic, the ice-free area in late summer greatly enlarged. During the record minimum extent of Arctic sea ice in September, 2012, the sea ice boundary had retreated northward much farther than normal from the coast.</p><br>
<p>The channels of the Mackenzie River thaw earlier, in late May–early June. This thawing increases the average water discharge from about 150000 to 250000 m3/s.</p><br>
<p>Hidden changes in the ice cover of the Beaufort Sea were discovered in 2009. Whereas the ice area remain stable, as detected by the observation satellites, so as the associated water temperature and salinity, the ice structure has changed recently. The new ice, called rotten ice, is thinner and much weaker structurally.</p><br>
<p>The sea water has a stable temperature and is separated into four distinct layers as follows. The top 100 m are surface water which has a temperature of -1.4 &deg;C in summer and -1.8 &deg;C in winter. The next layer is formed by the inflows from the Pacific Ocean and Bering Sea coming through the Bering Strait; it extends up to the North Pole. The warmest, deep Atlantic layer has the temperatures between 0 and 1 °C (32 to 34 °F), and water at the bottom is a bit colder at −0.4 to −0.8 °C (31.3 to 30.6 °F). The average salinity varies between 28‰ and 32‰ (parts per thousand) from south to north. Typical air temperatures (at Tuktoyaktuk) are -27 &deg;C in January and 11 &deg;C in July.</p><br>
<p>The water currents form the clockwise-directed Beaufort Gyre, that results in south-westerly and westerly currents near the shores. The Mackenzie River partly affects this circulation inducing minor eastwards streams near its mouth. The river annually brings about 15 million tonnes of sediments which are rich in dolomite and calcium carbonate. Those deposits are spread over the sea and mixed with mud and gravel.</p><br>
<h2>Flora and fauna</h2><br>
<p>The shoreline of the Beaufort Sea is covered with tundra and the northern limit of the terrestrial range of the polar bear in North America. The Mackenzie River is an important habitat for whales and seabirds and is still relatively untouched by commercial traffic. The delta of Mackenzie River contains numerous lakes and ponds which are inhabited by muskrat.</p><br>
<p>The sea hosts about 80 species of zooplankton, more than 70 species of phytoplankton, and nearly 700 species of polychaetes, bryozoans, crustaceans and mollusks, but their total volume is relatively small owing to the cold climate. Major fish species include polar cod (Boreogadus saida), Arctic cod (Arctogadus glacialis), saffron cod (Eleginus gracilis), Arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus), chum salmon (Oncorhynchus keta), Arctic cisco (Coregonus autumnalis), least cisco (Coregonus sardinella), lake whitefish (Coregonus clupeaformis), broad whitefish (Coregonus nasus), Pacific herring (Clupea pallasii), fourhorn sculpin (Myoxocephalus quadricornis), inconnu (Stenodus leucichthys) and flatfish.</p><br>
<p>The eastern part of the sea is a major habitat of beluga whales with an estimated population of 39,000. This population is stable and might even be increasing; it is not affected by the offshore oil exploration in the area. Belugas spend summer in the coastal area and Mackenzie River delta, which are free of ice then, and in winter migrate log distances to the polynyas of the deep sea. Genetic analyses have confirmed that belugas of the Beaufort Sea are clearly distinct from those of other Canadian and Alaskan waters, despite they often share a common wintering habitat.</p><br>
<p>The food chain of the Beaufort Sea is relatively simple: It starts with phytoplankton and epontic algae (single-cell algae associated with the lower interface of sea ice), which provide energy to zooplankton, and epontic and coastal amphipods. The latter serve as a food for seabirds and fish, primarily as polar cod and Arctic char. Polar cod is a major food of Arctic char, beluga, narwhal, seabirds and seals, which are dominated by the bearded seal (Erignatus barbatus) and ringed seal (Pusa hispida). Bearded seal and walrus also feed on benthic invertebrates. On top of the food pyramid stands polar bear, which feeds primarily on seals, but also on any large marine mammals when it has a chance, such as carcasses and whales trapped in ice fields.</p><br>
<h2>Human activities</h2><br>
<p>"There is only one proposed Early-Entry site in eastern Beringia that still has proponents, Bluefish Caves in the Porcupine River Basin, Yukon Territory, Canada. Claims of great antiquity in the area e.g., 30kya have a convoluted history. A caribou tibia flesher, the most diagnostic human implement from the Old Crow basin, had been dated at near 28 kya. When redated using accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) of small amounts of remnant collagen the bone produced a 1.8 kya date (Yesner 1996b:255)". There is no evidence for anomalous occupation of Beaufort coasts in the context of Arctic cultures generally, including the arrival about 4,000 years ago by Paleo-Eskimos such as the Dorset culture, around 1,000 years ago by the Thule and finally by the modern Inuit. From early ages, they practised fishing – bones of Arctic char were found at the 4,000 years old settlements. While originally they lived nomadic life, later, they started to form permanent settlements. Modern Inuit are mostly concentrated near the Mackenzie River delta. Their population is increasing, but the unemployment rate is relatively high.</p><br>
<p>Bowhead whales were hunted in the sea between 1888 and 1914. This practice stopped, first because of the decline in whale population and then because of government regulations, but resumed in the 1990s.</p><br>
<p>The major settlements along the Beaufort Sea are Tuktoyaktuk (population 930 in 2009) in Canada and Prudhoe Bay, Alaska. Although Prudhoe Bay is permanently populated by only a few people, there are thousands of contract workers in the area employed on petroleum production at the Prudhoe Bay Oil Field, which is on the coastal lowland known as the North Slope. Artificial islands, such as Endicott and Northstar, have been raised near the shores in 1987 and 2001, respectively. The crude oil is transported through the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System to the southern port of Valdez.</p><br>
<p>Fishing and sea hunting are practised by the local inhabitants and have no commercial value, especially after a US moratorium on commercial fishing of the Beaufort Sea, adopted in 2009. Trapping of muskrat at the Mackenzie River delta was the main source of income for the Athabaskan First Nations peoples and Inuit during 1920–1960, but has since declined.</p><br>
<h2>Oil and gas exploration</h2><br>
<p>The Beaufort Sea contains major gas and petroleum reserves beneath the seabed, a continuation of proven reserves in the nearby Mackenzie River and North Slope. These activities resulted in dredging of about 46.5 million m3 of sea bottom soil, as well as discharge of drilling muds which contained barite, clay, caustic soda, and heavy metals zinc, copper, lead, chromium, cobalt, nickel, cadmium and mercury. About 50,400 m&sup3; of oil was produced in 1986.</p><br>
<p>A major gas field, named Taglu Gas Field, was discovered in the Mackenzie River delta in 1971, followed by the Parson Lake field and Niglintgak field. The estimated gas reserves of these fields are 58,600 km3, 35,400 km3 and 13,600 km3, respectively. Moreover, further into the sea from the Mackenzie delta lies the Amauligak field. This, the largest known oil deposit of the Beaufort Sea, was discovered in 1984, and is estimated to contain 37.3 km3 of oil and 38,500 km3 of gas. The development of these fields is hindered by their remote location. This problem was alleviated for Prudhoe Bay by constructing the Trans-Alaska Pipeline, but is limiting regular commercial production at Mackenzie River deposits. For example, the Amauligak Project was started soon after the discovery of the field. In September 1985, the tanker Gulf Beaufort has transported 50,300,000 l of crude oil to Japan, which was the first shipment of oil from the Arctic deposits. However, the project has stalled after that.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>Stan Rogers references the Beaufort Sea in his popular Canadian Folk Song Northwest Passage (song).</p><br>
<p>Lake Pedder, once a natural lake, is a man-made impoundment and diversion lake located in the southwest of Tasmania, Australia. In addition to its natural catchment from the Frankland Range, the lake is formed by the 1972 damming of the Serpentine and Huon rivers by the Hydro Electric Commission of Tasmania for the purposes of hydroelectric power generation.</p><br>
<p>As a result, the flooded Lake Pedder now has a surface area of approximately 242 km&sup2; and it is the largest freshwater lake in Australia.</p><br>
<h2>The original and modified lake</h2><br>
<p>In early 20th century the original lake was named after Sir John Pedder, the first Chief Justice of Tasmania. The name of the original lake was officially transferred to the new man-made impoundment. Although the new Lake Pedder incorporates the original lake, it does not resemble it in size, appearance or ecology.</p><br>
<p>The new lake consists of an impoundment contained by three dams:</p><br>
<p>Serpentine Dam – a 38 m high rockfill dam with a concrete upstream face on the Serpentine River.</p><br>
<p>Scotts Peak Dam – a 43 m high rockfill dam with a bitumen upstream face on the upper reaches of the Huon River near Scotts Peak.</p><br>
<p>Edgar Dam – a 17 m high rockfill dam at Lake Edgar near Scotts Peak.</p><br>
<p>The dams were designed and constructed by Tasmanias Hydro Electric Commission (HEC) as part of the Upper Gordon River hydro-electric generation scheme. The aim of this scheme was to increase Tasmanias capacity to generate hydro-electricity in accordance with the Tasmanian Government&#39;s policy of attempting to attract secondary industry to the State with the incentive of cheap renewable energy.</p><br>
<p>The new Huon Serpentine impoundment, which filled after the dams were completed in 1972, drains into Lake Gordon via the McPartlan Pass Canal at 42&deg;51&prime;4&Prime;S latitude, 146&deg;11&prime;2&Prime;E longitude. Together, the lakes form the biggest water catchment and storage system in Australia.</p><br>
<h2>Damming</h2><br>
<p>There were protests in Tasmania and mainland Australia at the flooding of the original lake, before, during and after construction of the dams. Protests began when in 1967 the Tasmanian Government revoked the status of the Lake Pedder National Park that had protected the lake since 1955. The role of the HEC as a surrogate wing of the Tasmanian government was perceived when the political or wider social dissent against the HEC power over the Tasmanian environment seemed impregnable. Tasmanias political leader, Premier Eric Reece and Allan Knight, the HEC Commissioner, were seen as the leading proponents of the damming&#39; of Tasmania against any opinion to the contrary, and were not averse to taking their opinions to statewide and national advertising campaigns asserting their right to dam the lake.</p><br>
<p>Reece was quoted as saying:</p><br>
<p>"There was a National Park out there, but I cant remember exactly where it was... at least, it wasnt of substantial significance in the scheme of things. The thing that was significant was that we had to double the output of power in this state in ten years in order supply the demands of industry and the community. And this was the scheme that looked as though it could do a greater part of job for us."</p><br>
<h2>Flooding</h2><br>
<p>A series of photographs in the 1976 Tasmanian Year book illustrated the process of flooding of the Lake Pedder area.</p><br>
<h2>Community response</h2><br>
<p>Opposition to the flooding of Lake Pedder extended well beyond Tasmania and spread throughout Australia and internationally. The focus on the South West Tasmania Wilderness area as an environmental battleground increased interest in the area, and many travelled to Lake Pedder before it was flooded to see what the issues were about.</p><br>
<p>The protests included the United Tasmania Group who were the precursor to the Tasmanian Greens and are now recognised as the worlds first green party. The group that preceded the Tasmanian Wilderness Society – the South West Tasmania Action Committee continued after the flooding, with the knowledge that surveying and appraising other catchments in the south west and west of Tasmania was well underway by the HEC. Although increasingly sophisticated economic, environmental and engineering arguments were raised by the opponents of the dam, it was not until the Franklin scheme that either the Hydro or its defenders were even considering the critiques. In 1972, the Christian activist Brenda Hean perished with pilot Max Price in a tiger moth aircraft they were flying from Tasmania to Canberra to protest the damming of Lake Pedder; it was alleged that pro-dam campaigners had entered the planes hangar and placed sugar in one of its fuel tanks.</p><br>
<p>Hesba Fay Brinsmead, an Australian children&#39;s author and environmentalist, wrote two books about the damming of Lake Pedder:</p><br>
<p>Echo in the Wilderness is a children&#39;s novel set on Lake Pedder on the eve of its flooding (published 1972)</p><br>
<p>I Will Not Say the Day Is Done (her only non-fiction/adult book) describes the struggle to save Lake Pedder (published 1983)</p><br>
<p>Concerns over the construction of the dam revolved around the loss of the distinctive pink quartzite beach of the original lake, and an increased understanding of the unique nature of the wilderness quality to the south west of Tasmania. This developed further with the Franklin Dam issue.</p><br>
<p>In 1994, a campaign group was launched called Pedder 2000. They proposed, unsuccessfully, the draining and restoration of the lake to its original state. There is an ongoing low-key campaign with the same goal by the group known as the Lake Pedder Action Committee which remains active</p><br>
<h2>A controversial and contested name</h2><br>
<p>As is the case in many land use, land ownership and territorial disputes, the name currently officially assigned to this body of water has considerable significance. It is also important in terms of understanding the technical status of the body of water as a component of a hydro-electric scheme.</p><br>
<p>From a technical, hydro-electric scheme point of view, the current Lake Pedder can be correctly termed a lake or reservoir as the water from Lake Pedder can flow into Lake Gordon via the McPartlan&#39;s Pass canal and is thereby connected to the Gordon power station.</p><br>
<p>However, people opposed to the flooding of the original lake do not accept the legitimacy of the official, gazetted name of Lake Pedder for the body of water that drowned it in 1972. Instead, they prefer to use the name Huon-Serpentine Impoundment. This name denotes the two major rivers dammed to create the current lake (Huon and Serpentine) and describes the technical status of the lake as an element of a hydro-electric scheme (impoundment) more accurately than the terms lake or reservoir.</p><br>
<p>Bushwalkers sometimes informally refer to it as "Fake Pedder".</p><br>
<h2>Lake Pedder extinctions</h2><br>
<p>The Lake Pedder earthworm (Hypolimnus pedderensis) is only known by the type specimen collected from a beach on Lake Pedder, Tasmania in 1971. After the flooding of the lake, this invertebrate was never seen again. A 1996 survey that sought to determine whether the species still existed in the area failed to find any examples. Since 2003 the Lake Pedder Earthworm has been listed as extinct on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.</p><br>
<p>An extinction claimed to have occurred after the flooding is that of the Lake Pedder planarian (Romankenkius pedderensis), an endemic flatworm. Since 1996 this invertebrate has also been listed as extinct on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. In 2012 the continued existence of this species was reported.</p><br>
<p>The Pedder galaxias, an Australian freshwater fish, is considered extinct in its natural habitat of Lake Pedder and its tributaries, although it still exists in captivity and in two translocated populations, one at Lake Oberon in the Western Arthurs mountain range. and one at a modified water supply dam near Strathgordon.</p><br>
<p>The Strait of Baltiysk is a strait enabling passage from the Baltic Sea into the freshwater Vistula Lagoon, located in Kaliningrad Oblast, Russia. The constructed strait separates the Sambian Peninsula and the Vistula Spit, and is at the northeastern side of the lagoon.</p><br>
<h2>Shipping</h2><br>
<p>The strait is the shipping connection from the open sea to the important Russian ports of Baltiysk and Kaliningrad in the northeastern lagoon, as well as to the Polish ports of Elbląg, Braniewo, Tolkmicko, Frombork, Sztutowo, Krynica Morska, and Nowa Pasłęka in the southeastern lagoon.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In 1497 a storm surge dug a new gat, then called the Neues Tief or Pillauer Seetief (New Deep, Pillau Sea Deep), through the Vistula Spit. In 1510 another storm surge widened and deepened that gat to navigability. It measured 550 m in length and 360 m in width. In 1626 King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden landed with 37 ships next to the gat, at a spot already slightly fortified, transforming it into the, and holding it for ten years (till the Treaty of Stuhmsdorf), also in order to pressurise his brother-in-law George William, Duke of Prussia and Elector of Brandenburg, to support him in the Polish–Swedish War and the Thirty Years&#39; War. The Swedes extended the adjacent Pillau village and built its first place of worship, a Lutheran church. In 1638 the Duke moved his residence to the close-by ducal capital Königsberg in Prussia.</p><br>
<p>In the 1960s the gat was expanded and now it measures 400 m in width and 12 m in depth. Since the 1990s Russia periodically blocks navigation via the strait (both for Poland and Russian Kaliningrad Oblast). Since 2006, Poland has considered digging another canal across the Vistula Spit in order to circumvent this lack of access.</p><br>
<h3>Kursenieki</h3><br>
<p>While today the Kursenieki, also known as Kuršininkai are a nearly extinct Baltic ethnic group living along the Curonian Spit, in 1649 Kuršininkai settlement spanned from Memel (Klaipėda) to Danzig (Gdańsk). The Kuršininkai were eventually assimilated by the Germans, except along the Curonian Spit where some still live. The Kuršininkai were considered Latvians until after World War I when Latvia gained independence from the Russian Empire, a consideration based on linguistic arguments. This was the rationale for Latvian claims over the Curonian Spit, Memel, and other territories of East Prussia which would be later dropped.</p><br>
<p>The Volcán de Colima, 3,820 m , also known as Volcán de Fuego, is part of the Colima Volcanic Complex  consisting of Volcán de Colima, Nevado de Colima and the eroded El Cantaro . It is the youngest of the three and as of 2015 is one of the most active volcanos in Mexico and in North America. It has erupted more than 40 times since 1576. One of the largest eruptions was on January 20–24, 1913. Nevado de Colima, also known as Tzapotépetl, lies 5 km north of its more active neighbor and is the taller of the two at 4,271 meters . It is the 26th-most prominent peak in North America.</p><br>
<p>Despite its name, only a fraction of the volcano&#39;s surface area is in the state of Colima; the majority of its surface area lies over the border in the neighboring state of Jalisco, toward the western end of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt. It is about 485 km west of Mexico City and 125 km south of Guadalajara, Jalisco.</p><br>
<p>Since 1869–1878, a parasitic set of domes, collectively known as El Volcancito, has formed on the northeast flank of the main cone of the volcano.</p><br>
<h2>Geological history</h2><br>
<p>In the late Pleistocene era, a huge landslide occurred at the mountain, with approximately 25 km³ of debris travelling some 120 km, reaching the Pacific Ocean. An area of some 2,200 km² was covered in landslide deposits. The currently active cone is situated within a large caldera that was probably formed by a combination of landslides and large eruptions. The lava is andesite containing 56-61% SiO2. About 300,000 people live within 40 km (25 miles) of the volcano, which makes it the most dangerous volcano in Mexico. In light of its history of large eruptions and situation in a densely populated area, it was designated a Decade Volcano, singling it out for study.</p><br>
<h2>Current activity</h2><br>
<p>In recent years there have been frequent temporary evacuations of nearby villagers due to threatening volcanic activity. Eruptions have occurred in 1991, 1998–1999 and from 2001 to the present day, with activity being characterised by extrusion of viscous lava forming a lava dome, and occasional larger explosions, forming pyroclastic flows and dusting the areas surrounding the volcano with ash and tephra.</p><br>
<p>The largest eruption for several years occurred on May 24, 2005. An ash cloud rose to more than 3 km over the volcano, and satellite monitoring indicated that the cloud spread over an area extending 110 nmi west of the volcano in the hours after the eruption. Pyroclastic flows travelled 4–5 km from the vent, and lava bombs landed 3&ndash;4 km away. Authorities set up an exclusion zone within 6.5 km of the summit.</p><br>
<p>On November 21, 2014, the volcano erupted again. An ash column was sent 5 km into the air, covering towns as far as 25 km away in ash. No fatalities were reported, and no evacuations took place.</p><br>
<p>There were eruptions on January 10, 21 and 25, with the ash from the January 21 eruption falling in towns more than 15 miles (24 km) away.</p><br>
<p>Colima volcano experienced another strong explosion at 06:27 UTC (00:27 CST) on January 18, 2017. The eruption spewed volcanic ash up to 4 km (13 123 feet) above the crater.</p><br>
<h2>Volcanological center</h2><br>
<p>The volcano is monitored by the Colima Volcano Observatory at the University of Colima, Mexico. A team analyzes, interprets and communicates every event that occurs at this volcano.</p><br>
<p>Last year a webcam was installed close to the volcano, and volcanic activity can be seen in real time.</p><br>
<p>The Cypress Hills are a geographical region of hills in southwestern Saskatchewan and southeastern Alberta, Canada.</p><br>
<p>The highest point in the Cypress Hills is at Head of the Mountain in Alberta at 1,466 m. The highest point in Saskatchewan is at 1,392 m. Its location is at 49&deg;33&prime;N latitude, 109&deg;59&prime;W longitude.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>The Cypress Hills have been known by a wide number of native and European names throughout their history. An 1882 Blackfoot–English dictionary written by C. M. Lanning provided the Blackfoot name I-kim-e-kooy, which translates as "striped earth" or "earth over earth". The Cree name, in use at the same time, was Manâtakâw, (spelled in a variety of anglicized forms including "Mun-a-tuh-gow"), sometimes said to mean "beautiful upland" but more accurately referring to "an area to be respected, protected, taken care of and/or taken care with". The Assiniboine name is wazíȟe. Early Métis hunters, who spoke a variation of French, called the hills les montagnes des Cyprès, in reference to the abundance of jack pine trees. In the Canadian French spoken by the Métis, the jack pine is called cyprès, although it is not a true cypress tree. The English translation is Cypress Hills.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The hills are not true mountains but are rather the remnants of erosion of a Tertiary plateau of sediment formed during the initial uplift of the Rocky Mountains. This uplift caused the plain above which the hills now rise to be elevated, with the result that rivers flowing to the north and south eroded most of the softer sediments onto the lower part of the Great Plains. Today, the Cypress Hills form a major drainage divide separating rivers draining to the Gulf of Mexico (via the Missouri River) from those draining to Hudson Bay and James Bay via the Nelson River; thus the Cypress Hills form a water divide. There is a ranch northwest of Eastend, Saskatchewan, called Dividing Springs Ranch; the water from this spring goes both south to Gulf of Mexico and north to Hudson Bay.</p><br>
<p>The Cypress Hills are among the northernmost points that remained above the southwestern margin of the Laurentide ice sheet during the last Wisconsin glaciation. The Cypress Hills are surrounded a series of morainal ridges composed of glacial till deposited when a glacier paused during its retreat 15,000 years ago.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<p>The hills, because of the higher precipitation they receive, support extensive forest and also some rare fescue grassland. Most of the flora is shared with the mountains in states such as Montana and Wyoming rather than with the rest of Canada. The altitude of the hills, which is similar to the altitude of Banff also shares some similar flora and fauna with the Alberta mountain parks. Southern facing slopes tend to support prairie, northern slopes are covered with forest.</p><br>
<p>The hills currently host cougars. Cattle graze throughout the Cypress Hills Provincial Park, especially on the prairie on the flat tops of the Hills, though stream bank damage in the spruce/lodgepole pine/aspen forest indicates their presence everywhere in the Hills.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Historically the Cypress Hills were a meeting and conflict area for various Native American and First Nations peoples including the Cree, Assiniboine, Atsina, Blackfoot, Saulteaux, Sioux, Crow, and others. During the 19th century Métis settled in the hills, hunting and often wintering there. The Cypress Hills Massacre, a key event in Canadian history leading to the creation of the North-West Mounted Police occurred in the hills when a group of American wolvers from Montana massacred an Assiniboine encampment. Fort Walsh was established to bring law and order to the Canada–US border region.</p><br>
<h3>Interprovincial park</h3><br>
<p>The Cypress Hills Provincial Park in Saskatchewan was established in 1931, and it was extended into Alberta in 1951, and Cypress Hills Interprovincial Park was created in 1989 which joined the parks on either side of the provincial border and also includes Fort Walsh National Historic Site. Cypress Hills Interprovincial Park.</p><br>
<p>The Saskatchewan side of the park is divided into two blocks, Centre Block which has fully developed yearround tourist facilities and West Block Wilderness area with rustic camping and also where Fort Walsh is also located. The Centre Block is located 30 kilometres south of Maple Creek on Highway 21. The West Block is located 45 kilometres southwest of Maple Creek on Highway 271.</p><br>
<p>The Alberta portion of the Cypress Hills contains the tourist destination of Elkwater, a community with campground facilities located on the southern shore of Elkwater Lake. The townsite is mainly made up of summer cabins. Elkwater is located about 70 kilometres southeast of Medicine Hat.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>The Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf, also known as Ronne-Filchner Ice Shelf, is an Antarctic ice shelf bordering the Weddell Sea.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The seaward side of the Filchner-Ronne ice shelf is divided into Eastern (Filchner) 79&deg;00&prime;S latitude, 40&deg;00&prime;W longitude and the larger Western (Ronne) 78&deg;30&prime;S latitude, 61&deg;00&prime;W longitude sections by Berkner Island. The whole ice shelf covers some 430,000 km², making it the second largest ice shelf in Antarctica, after the Ross Ice Shelf. It grows perpetually due to a flow of inland ice sheets. From time to time, when the shearing stresses exceed the strength of the ice, cracks form and large parts of the ice sheet separate from the ice shelf and continue as icebergs. This is known as calving.</p><br>
<p>The Ronne ice shelf is the larger and western part of the Filchner-Ronne ice shelf. It is bounded on the west by the base of the Antarctic Peninsula (Graham Land with Zumberge Coast and Orville Coast) and Ellsworth Land. Commander Finn Ronne, USNR, leader of the Ronne Antarctic Research Expedition (RARE) in 1947-48, discovered and photographed a strip along the entire northern portion of this ice shelf in two aircraft flights in November and December 1947. He named it the "Lassiter Shelf Ice" and gave the name "Edith Ronne Land" to the land presumed to lie south of it. In 1957-58, the US-IGY party at Ellsworth Station, under now Captain Ronne, determined that the ice shelf was larger than previously charted, that it extends southward to preempt most of "Edith Ronne Land". Inasmuch as Capt. James Lassiter&#39;s name has been assigned to a coast of Palmer Land, the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names (US-ACAN) approved the name Ronne Ice Shelf for this large ice shelf, on the basis of first sighting and exploration of the ice shelf by Ronne and parties under his leadership. The shelf is therefore named for Edith Ronne, the wife of Finn Ronne and RARE Expedition member.</p><br>
<p>The Filchner ice shelf is the eastern part of the Filchner-Ronne ice shelf. It is bounded on the west by Berkner Island and on the east by Coats Land. The east part of this shelf was discovered in January–February 1912 by the German Antarctic Expedition under Wilhelm Filchner. Filchner named the feature for Kaiser Wilhelm, but the Emperor requested it be named for its discoverer. The shelf is nourished primarily by the Slessor Glacier, the Recovery Glacier, and the Support Force Glacier, all located east of Berkner Island.</p><br>
<h2>Calving</h2><br>
<p>In October 1998, the iceberg A-38 broke off the Filchner-Ronne ice shelf. It had a size of roughly 150 by 50 km and was thus larger than Delaware. It later broke up into three parts. A similar-sized calving in May 2000 created an iceberg 167 by 32 km in extent, dubbed A-43 - the disintegration of this is thought to have been responsible for the November 2006 sighting of several large icebergs from the coast of the South Island of New Zealand, the first time that any icebergs had been observed from the New Zealand mainland since 1931. A large group of small icebergs (the largest some 1000 metres in length), were seen off the southeast coast of the island, with one of them drifting close enough to shore to be visible from the hills above the city of Dunedin. If these were indeed the remnants of this calving, then over the course of five and a half years they had travelled slowly north and also east around over half the globe, a journey of some 13,500 km.</p><br>
<p>From January 12 and January 13, 2010, an area of sea ice larger than the state of Rhode Island broke away from the Ronne-Filchner Ice Shelf and shattered into many smaller pieces. The Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA’s Aqua and Terra satellites captured this event in this series of photo-like images.</p><br>
<p>The ice of the Filchner-Ronne ice shelf can be as thick as 600 m; the water below is about 1400 m deep at the deepest point.</p><br>
<p>The international Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf Programme (FRISP) was initiated in 1973 to study the ice shelf.</p><br>
<p>A study published in Nature in 2012 by scientists from the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany, and funded by the Ice2Sea initiative, predicts the disappearance of the 450,000 km&sup2; vast ice shelf in Antarctica by the end of the century which could - indirectly - add up to 4.4 mm of rise of sea level each year.</p><br>
<p>Branch Brook Park is a county park of Essex County, New Jersey in the United States, located in the North Ward of Newark, between the neighborhoods of Forest Hill and Roseville. A portion of the park is also located within the Township of Belleville. At 360 acre, Branch Brook Park is the largest public park in the city of Newark. The park is noted for the largest collection of cherry blossom trees in the United States, having over 4,300 in more than fourteen different varieties collectively called Cherryblossomland, as well as its spectacular Cherry Blossom Festival each April.</p><br>
<p>The park was formally created in 1895 by the newly created Essex County Parks Commission, making it the nations first county park. The area had served as an Army training ground during the American Civil War. At the time, the northern portion of the area had been a marsh known as Old Blue Jay Swamp. In 1898, a public appropriation financed the conversion of the swamp into a landscaped lake. The initial park was only 60 acre in size but grew in the 1920s through private donations from prominent Newark families, such as the Ballantines, eventually reaching the city limit with Belleville and becoming one of the largest urban parks in the United States. The Morris Canal originally ran on the parks west side, until its old bed was turned into the Newark City Subway, providing access to the park from Downtown Newark.</p><br>
<p>The first designs of the park, based largely on romantic garden themes, were proposed in 1895 and 1898, after the Parks Commission hired several architectural firms to plan the park. In 1900, the commission hired the Olmsted Brothers firm to redesign the park. The result was the parks current naturalistic look and feel, with acres of meadows and forests, in a manner similar to their fathers earlier designs of Central Park and Prospect Park.</p><br>
<p>The park is home to many architecturally significant structures, including bridges, buildings, gates, and sculptures. Many of these were designed by the beaux-arts architectural firm of Carrère and Hastings headed by John Merven Carrère and Thomas Hastings (architect). The pair designed two Subway Bridges now referred to as Subway 1, East and Subway 2, West.</p><br>
<p>The famous cherry trees were the result of a 1927 gift from Caroline Bamberger Fuld, sister of department store magnate Louis Bamberger and widow of the store&#39;s vice president. The Cherry Blossom Festival attracts approximately 10,000 visitors each April.</p><br>
<p>During World War II, the park&#39;s grounds served a tent city for recruits, as well as a landing strip for airplanes of the United States Postal Service.</p><br>
<p>The neighborhood on the east side of the park, Forest Hill, is Newark&#39;s most affluent. Also on the east side of the park is the Cathedral of the Sacred Heart Basilica, one of the largest cathedrals in the United States.</p><br>
<p>It has been placed on both the New Jersey (1980) and National (1981) Registers of Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>Branch Brook Park is undergoing a $25 million ten-year restoration program. In 2004, the Park Avenue bridge was repaired, as were the baseball fields in the center of the park. In 2007, a plan was created to provide for more than 5,000 cherry trees in the park and renovate and rename the Welcome Center. The plan uses a $650,000 grant from the Essex County Recreation and the Open Space Trust Fund from 2006 and private donations.</p><br>
<p>In 2012, statues dedicated to sports figures Althea Gibson and Roberto Clemente were unveiled in the park.</p><br>
<p>Salona  was an ancient city and the capital of the Roman province of Dalmatia. The name Salona preserves the language of the early inhabitants of this area whom the Romans called Dalmatae, and considered to be part of a larger group called Illyrians. Salona  is situated in today&#39;s town of Solin, right next to Split, in modern-day Croatia.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>First mention of the name Salon originates about 7th century BC as an Illyrian settlement near the spring of river Jadro. In the first millennium BC the Greeks set up an emporion (marketplace) there.</p><br>
<p>After the conquest by the Romans, Salona became the capital of the Roman province of Dalmatia. because it sided with the future Roman emperor Gaius Julius Caesar in the civil war against Pompeius and Marcus Licinius Crassus of the first Triumvirate.</p><br>
<p>Martia Iulia Valeria Salona Felix (the full name of the ancient city) was founded probably after the Roman civil wars under Julius Caesar. The early Roman city encompassed the area around the Forum and Theatre, with an entrance, the Porta Caesarea, on the north-east side, The walls were fortified with towers during the reign of Augustus.</p><br>
<p>The early trapezoidal shape of the city was transformed by eastern and western expansion of the city.</p><br>
<p>The city quickly acquired Roman characteristics: walls; a forum; a theatre; an amphitheatre the most conspicuous above-ground remains today; public baths; and an aqueduct. Many inscriptions in both Latin and Greek have been found both inside the walls and in the cemeteries outside, since Romans forbade burials inside the city boundaries. A number of fine marble sarcophagi from those cemeteries are now in the. All this archaeological evidence attests to the city&#39;s prosperity and integration into the Roman Empire.</p><br>
<p>Salona had a mint that was connected with the mint in Sirmium and silver mines in the Dinaric Alps through Via Argentaria. When the Roman Emperor Diocletian retired, he erected a monumental palace nearby. This massive structure, known as Diocletian&#39;s Palace, became the core of the modern city of Split.</p><br>
<p>Salona&#39;s continuing prosperity resulted in extensive church building in the fourth and fifth centuries, including an episcopal basilica and a neighboring church and baptistery inside the walls, and several shrines honoring martyrs outside. These have made it a major site for studying the development of Christian sacred architecture.</p><br>
<p>Salona was largely destroyed in the invasions of the Avars and Slavs in the seventh century CE, though the exact year of the destruction still remains an open subject between archaeologists. Refugees from Salona settled inside the Diocletian&#39;s Palace.</p><br>
<h2>City walls</h2><br>
<p>The construction of the Salonitan city walls took several centuries. The earliest part of the city was surrounded by walls as early as the second century BC. During the Pax Romana the city expanded to both east and west.</p><br>
<p>During the reign of Emperor Marcus Aurelius around 170 A.D., under constant threat of Germanic tribes the east and west suburbs were included in the walls which were fortified with at least 90 towers. Some parts of existing buildings were used in the extensions to the walls thus making them an integral part. Total circumference of the elliptical shape of the walls was approximately 4 km, with varying width from 1.9 to 2.5 metres.</p><br>
<p>During the reign of Emperor Theodosius II in the early fifth century all the towers were reconstructed, as witnessed by an inscription on the walls. Furthermore, in the first half of the sixth century, in order to improve city&#39;s security and defence system, triangular shaped endings were added to some square-shaped towers. Such examples are visible today on the northern side of the Urbs orientalis.</p><br>
<p>Best preserved part of the oldest part of the city (Urbs vetus) is eastern wall and Porta Caesarea with two octagonal towers and tree passages; one for cart traffic and two for pedestrians on each side of the wider passage. Central passage was probably equipped with a movable grid, as indicated by grooves on side pylons. Porta Caesarea was constructed using large regular stones primarily for fortification purposes. After eastern and western expansion had occurred, the gate lost their primary purpose and became carrying construction of the aqueduct. According to Kähler reconstruction, the gate had two floors, of which the top one was very elaborately decorated with half columns, composite capitals, and window openings. Within the gate there was small courtyard for defence purposes.</p><br>
<h2>Thermae</h2><br>
<p>The thermae were typical buildings of Roman civilisation and indispensable part of Roman urban life. Although the city of Salona at the time had multiple baths, best preserved and largest one are those in the eastern part of the city called the Great Thermae, built in the second or beginning of third century A.D. This building is rectangular in shape with three symmetrically arranged apses in the north and one in the west. To the north there was an adjoining elongated spacious room, housing a semicircular pool, the piscina, filled with cold water, the frigidarium. To the left there were two dressing rooms, with benches for sitting and openings in the wall for clothes. The room to the west was also used as a massage room, the unctorium. The room ending with an apse served both as a lounge and an exercise room. To the right there were hot baths and sauna: caldarium, tepidarium and sudatorium.</p><br>
<h2>Bridge of Five Arches</h2><br>
<p>In the eastern suburb of Salona five arches spanned the western-most backwater of the Jadro river (the ancient Salon river). The bridge carried one extension of Decumanus Maximus which branched into two roads, one of which led north-east to the Porta Andetria gate, while the other one led across the bridge to Epetium, today&#39;s city of Stobreč.</p><br>
<h2>Amphitheatre</h2><br>
<p>At the westernmost point of Salona, in the Urbs occidentalis, in the second half of the second century A.D. under the influence of Flavian architectural style a monumental building was erected. It is one of the most recognizable buildings of Roman architecture. The remains of Roman amphitheatre indicate that gladiator fights were held in the city of Salona just as in any part of Roman empire, until the fifth century when they were finally banned. The building was ellipsoidal in shape, with three floors on the south side and one floor on the north side, which was conveniently laid down on a natural hillside. Despite its relatively small size (125 by 100 meters outer shell and 65 by 40 meters the arena), Salonitan amphitheatre could have been occupied by 15.000 up to 18.000 spectators. The auditorium was divided into three tires, the lower two with seats and the upper one for standing. In Diocletians time the top tier was covered with a porch. By means of poles attached to the outer shell of the building the whole arena could be covered with canvas, giving protection from the sun and rain. On the south side there was a state box for the Province governor and opposite it seats of honour for the city magistrates. In the centre of arena there was an opening which led into an underground corridor whose purpose was disposal of dead gladiators bodies. On the south side of the amphitheatre, beneath the auditorium, there were two vaulted rooms, where gladiators worshipped Nemesis, the goddess of revenge and destiny. During Diocletian&#39;s persecutions of Christians, the amphitheatre was used as a site of executions.</p><br>
<p>Only parts of substructures of this monumental building, as well as some fragments of architectural decoration and stone sculpture have been preserved. The amphitheatre was most severely damaged during the wars against the Turks in the 17th century when Venetians had it demolished for strategic reasons.</p><br>
<p>Powai Lake is an artificial lake, situated in Mumbai, in the Powai valley, where a Powai village with a cluster of huts existed. The city suburb called Powai shares its name with the lake.</p><br>
<p>Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, one of the premier institutions of science and technology in India, is located to the east of the lake. Another famous institution, the National Institute of Industrial Engineering (NITIE), is also located close to the lake. Housing complexes and plush hotels are developed all around the lake periphery. Population around the lake has thus substantially increased over the years.</p><br>
<p>When it was built, the lake had an area of about 2.1 km&sup2; and the depth varied from about 3 m (at the periphery) to 12 m at its deepest.</p><br>
<p>The Powai Lake has gone through many stages of water quality degradation. The lake water which used to supply drinking water for Mumbai has been declared unfit to drink. The lake still remains a tourist attraction.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Before the lake was built by the British, in 1799 AD, the estate where the lake is now was leased on a yearly rent to Dr. Scott. After his death in 1816, the government took control of the estate in 1826 and leased it to Framaji Kavasji, then the vice-president of the Agricultural and Horticultural Society of Western India after whom the lake was named when it was built in 1891.</p><br>
<p>A stream tributary of the Mithi river, which served the Powai village&#39;s water needs, was dammed in 1891, during the British period. It was initially to augment water supply to Bombay city (now called Mumbai), by constructing two dams of 10 m to store the rain water flowing from the lower slopes of the Western Ghats and streams from the eastern and northeastern slopes of hills. It was planned as an antiwater famine measure, to the southeast of Vihar Lake (a much larger lake) also for water supply to Mumbai city. The scheme was taken in hand in 1889. Though it was completed within a year at an initial cost of more than Rs. 6,50,000 and started providing two million gallons of water per day, it had to be abandoned due to the hue and cry against the quality of the water. Five lakhs of rupees more were spent on the scheme in 1919 in an attempt to restore the supply at least for the suburbs but this, too, was given up with the development of the Tansa works.</p><br>
<p>After the drinking water supply objective was abandoned in the early 1890s, in view of poor quality of the water due to pollution, water hyacinth and weeds, untreated sewage and large silt deposit, the lake was leased to the Western India Fishing Association, a quasi government organisation, who used it for fish culture and angling. Later, the Bombay Presidency Angling Association was formed in 1936. In 1955, under the Societies Registration Act 1860, it was registered as the Maharashtra State Angling Association (MSAA) and the lake is now under their control. Realising the gravity of the environmental pollution, the MSAA has revised its constitution "to actively care for, clean, develop, maintain, and beautify the Environment at Powai Lake."</p><br>
<p>MSAA is now involved with</p><br>
<p>removal of water hyacinth infestation</p><br>
<p>supporting research with Fisheries Department for conservation of the Indian mahaseer</p><br>
<p>water quality analysis</p><br>
<p>augmenting security.</p><br>
<h2>Access</h2><br>
<p>The lake is about 40 km from Mumbais downtown by road and is approached via Kings Circle, Sion, and Kurla or through Santa Cruz and Andheri. Kanjurmarg on the Central Line (Mumbai Suburban Railway) of the Mumbai Suburban Railway is the nearest railway station to the lake. The airport is also nearby.</p><br>
<h2>Hydrology and water quality</h2><br>
<p>It is reported that the average rainfall at Powai is about 2,540 mm, and the lake overflows for about for sixty days each year. The overflow from the lake flows into the Mithi River. Silt studies conducted in 1995 estimates in that 4500 lakh cubic metres of silt has been deposited in the lake since its construction. Government of Maharashtra reports that due to eutrophication of the lake water from untreated sewage and garbage from nearby residential and slum colonies, the lake water is unfit for drinking water use. Hence, the lake is now used for recreation, gardening, cattle washing and fishing. The water of the lake is also supplied to Aarey colony and Larsen & Toubro for non domestic uses. Dissolved Oxygen (DO) level at the bottom of the lake is reported to be 0.71 mg/litre and at surface 4.11 mg/litre, average value of pH is 7.2 and COD is 42.70 mg/litre on the surface and 119 mg/litre at the bottom of the lake.</p><br>
<h2>Lake rejuvenation</h2><br>
<p>Appreciating the problem of silting, growth of water hyacinth, weed, and eutrophication of the lake, the IIT Bombay&#39;s Class of 1980 launched a "Revitalization of Powai Lake” with the objective of restoring the lake to its original pristine and sustainable form by adopting Eco-friendly designs and materials for the restoration works.</p><br>
<p>Some of the tasks proposed to be undertaken with the funds donated by IIT, Bombay included:</p><br>
<p>Removing water hyacinth and weeds from the lake in parts nearest to the campus</p><br>
<p>Starting a publicity and an awareness program in the area</p><br>
<p>Building embankments, walkways and pathways to the lake</p><br>
<p>Constructing a large gazebo for an evening (or morning or afternoon) by the lake</p><br>
<p>Planting trees, and creating a garden</p><br>
<p>Installing docks, deploying boats and canoes</p><br>
<p>Allocating funds for annual maintenance</p><br>
<p>The project was proposed to be professionally managed with a project manager working under directives of IIT Bombay with an “Oversight Committee“ to monitor objectives set for the restoration work.</p><br>
<p>In 1995, the National Lake Conservation Plan (NLCP) of the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoE&F), Government of India, reviewed the condition of Powai Lake and included the Lake in its list of ten major lakes in the country for revival and improvements. The restoration/revival programme, fully funded by the NLCP, was launched in April 2002, and implemented by Bombay Municipal Corporation (BMC) now called Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation (BMC), the Government of Maharashtra and as a result the status of the lake has undergone a major shift from the hypertrophic condition to mesotrophic condition by adopting a novel technique of aeration and bioremediation. This has resulted in the lake being used for fishing and recreational purposes.</p><br>
<h2>Desilting project</h2><br>
<p>The Lake&#39;s water depth is reported to have reduced to as little as 0.33 m at some locations, on account of the large inflow of sewage, domestic waste water and silt from surrounding residential and industrial areas.</p><br>
<p>Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation (BMC) has therefore plans to desilt the Powai Lake at a cost of US $9 million.</p><br>
<h2>Fauna</h2><br>
<p>Many crocodiles have been seen on the lake side.</p><br>
<p>White-throated kingfisher, small blue kingfisher, spot-billed duck, spotted dove, a few purple swamphens, purple-rumped sunbirds, bronze-winged and pheasant-tailed jacanas, ashy prinias, brahminy kite, red-vented, red-whiskered and white-browed bulbuls, cormorants, lesser whistling ducks, grey, purple and Indian pond herons, little, intermediate egret and great egrets, peregrine falcon, greater coucal, rose-ringed and Alexandrine parakeets, Eurasian marsh harrier (possibly winter visitor), woolly-necked stork (winter visitor) hoopoe and whiskered terns.</p><br>
<p>butterflies, honey bees, bumble bees and beetles have also been sighted.</p><br>
<h2>Flora</h2><br>
<p>Balsam bushes, in their full bloom, in pink-purple color are seen around the lake periphery, like a carpet.</p><br>
<h2>Powai Lake views</h2><br>
<p>The Elan Valley Reservoirs are a chain of man-made lakes created from damming the Elan and Claerwen rivers within the Elan Valley in Mid Wales. The reservoirs, which were built by the Birmingham Corporation Water Department, provide clean drinking water for Birmingham in the West Midlands of England. The five lakes are known as the Claerwen, Craig-goch, Pen-y-garreg, Garreg-ddu, and Caban-coch.</p><br>
<p>Water from the reservoirs is carried by gravity to Frankley Reservoir in Birmingham via the Elan aqueduct. Pumping is not required because the network drops 52 m along its 73 mi length from its source to Frankley. A gradient of 1:2300 maintains a flow of less than 2 mph; water takes two and a half to three days to reach Birmingham. The aqueduct, which was started in 1896 and opened in 1906, crosses several valleys and features numerous brick tunnels, pipelines, and valve houses.</p><br>
<p>Work to build the Elan Valley reservoirs was undertaken because the rapid growth of the industrial city of Birmingham in the late 19th century had led to a lack of available clean water. Numerous outbreaks of disease prompted Birmingham City Council to petition the British government which passed the Birmingham Corporation Water Act in 1892. It allowed the Corporation to acquire by compulsory purchase all the land within the water catchment area of the Elan Valleys. Thousands of navvies and their families lived in the purpose-built Elan Village during the construction of the first four dams at the turn of the 20th century. In 1952, the Claerwen dam was opened by Elizabeth II in one of her first official engagements as monarch.</p><br>
<p>Drinking water from the Elan Valley is noted for being exceptionally soft. However local supplies in surrounding areas in the West Midlands, not served by the Elan aqueduct, are noted for hardness.</p><br>
<p>The reservoirs are now owned and managed by Dŵr Cymru Welsh Water. The water filtration works further down the valley is run by Severn Trent Water.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>There are four main dams and reservoirs (constructed 1893–1904 in Elan Valley, and 1946–1952 at Claerwen) with a potential total capacity of nearly 100,000 megalitres. The dams and reservoirs are:</p><br>
<p>Caban-coch with Garreg-ddu – 35,530 megalitre capacity</p><br>
<p>Pen-y-garreg – 6,055 megalitre capacity</p><br>
<p>Craig-goch – 9,220 megalitre capacity</p><br>
<p>Claerwen – 48,694 megalitre capacity.</p><br>
<p>In addition to the four main dams, there are three other dams at the site:</p><br>
<p>The Dol-y-mynach dam – it was to be one of a series of three dams that would be built to contain the waters of Afon Claerwen. They were to be constructed in accordance with the growth of Birmingham. However, the project was never completed even though the masonry foundations of the first dam were laid at the same time the Elan Valley dams were being constructed. The work had to be done in advance because the water level of the Caban Coch would have submerged the site once the reservoir was full. The three-dam project became redundant when newer materials and superior engineering allowed the construction of the single larger Claerwen dam higher up the valley in the 1940/50s.</p><br>
<p>The Nant-y-Gro dam – this small dam was constructed in the early stages of the project to supply water to the navvies village at the site; it was used during the Second World War by Sir Barnes Wallis during trials of the explosive charges he intended to use in the bouncing bombs which later targeted the Ruhr dams.</p><br>
<p>The Garreg-ddu dam – although looking like a viaduct, it is actually a submerged dam. Its role is to maintain a sufficient level in the Garreg-ddu reservoir so water can enter the Foel Tower and the gravity-driven aqueduct to the Frankley Reservoir in Birmingham. The dam is only required to operate during times of extreme drought.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Construction</h3><br>
<p>The Elan dam scheme was developed in the 19th century following rapid growth of the population of Birmingham in England due to the Industrial Revolution. The city&#39;s expansion resulted in regular outbreaks of water-borne diseases and major epidemics such as typhoid, cholera and dysentery because of the lack of clean water.</p><br>
<p>Victorian politician, Joseph Chamberlain, the leader of Birmingham City Council began a campaign to get clean water from the Elan and Claerwen valleys in mid Wales. The area, which had been identified by civil engineer James Mansergh, would be ideal for water reservoirs because:</p><br>
<p>it had an average annual rainfall of 1,830 mm.</p><br>
<p>dams could be easily built in the narrow valleys.</p><br>
<p>the bedrock was impermeable to water.</p><br>
<p>there was no need for pumping stations because the reservoirs in Wales would be 52 m above the water cisterns in Birmingham.</p><br>
<p>In 1892, the British government passed the Birmingham Corporation Water Act allowing the council to effect compulsory purchase of the total water catchment area of the Elan and Claerwen valleys (approximately 180 km&sup2;. The Act also gave Birmingham the powers to move more than 100 people living in the Elan Valley. All the buildings were demolished; these included three manor houses (two of which had links with the English Romantic poet Percy Bysshe Shelley in 1812), 18 farms, a school and a church (which was replaced with Nantgwyllt Church). Only landowners were given compensation.</p><br>
<p>Work began to construct the reservoirs the following year in 1893. Construction was overseen by James Mansergh, on behalf of the City of Birmingham&#39;s Water Department. Due to the height above sea level of the Elan Valley, water would be fed to Birmingham along a 116 km pipeline that employed a gravity feed with a gradient of 1 in 2,300. The schedule for the project was to build the four lower Elan Valley dams first. The Claerwen would then be built later (work was expected to begin 1939 but was delayed by the Second World War; it was completed in 1952).</p><br>
<h4>Mineral railway</h4><br>
<p>The Elan Valley Railway, which was a standard-gauge line, was built by the Birmingham corporation especially for the project. It ran through the Elan Valley from a junction near Rhayader on the Mid-Wales Railway. The first section to be built was a 4 km branch from the main line at Rhayader to the main work site at the Caban-coch dam. This depot included a cement cooling shed, general stores, coal storage, workshops for carpenters, smiths, fitters and waggon builders, and sawmills. Further branches were eventually built to all the other dam sites. Engines and trucks reached the top of the dams on wooden trestle scaffolds supported by concrete parapets. The line went as far as the site where the foundations of the Dol-y-mynach dam were being built (lower down the valley from the later Claerwen dam). At its height, the railway had a total length of 45 km with six locomotives transporting up to 1,000 tons of materials a day. Following the completion of the lower dams, the entire Elan Valley Railway had been entirely lifted by 1916.</p><br>
<p>Road transport was used when the Claerwen dam was built in the late 1940s and &#39;50s.</p><br>
<p>The railway was required because the core of the Caban-coch, Pen-y-garreg and Craig-goch dams were built from large irregular stone blocks ("plums") embedded in concrete. The rock was mined locally from Cigfran and Craig-cnwch quarries by the Elan River and the Aberdeuddwr quarry on Cerrig Gwynion, just to the south of Rhayader. The shaped stones were hauled by locomotive to the dam sites on flatbed trucks. They were then lowered into place by steam crane. The central cores of the dams were encased with a 2 m concrete lining. The outside walls were faced with cut stone brought from quarries at Llanelwedd near Builth Wells and Pontypridd. The cement, which was made near Chatham in Kent, was sent by sea to Aberystwyth and brought by railway to the Elan Valley.</p><br>
<p>The cost of the Elan valley scheme ran over budget because of the failure to find suitable building stone near any of the dams apart from Caban-coch, as well as the necessity of bringing in facing stone from other quarries in mid and south Wales.</p><br>
<h4>Workers' village</h4><br>
<p>During the ten-year project to build the Elan Valley dams, the navvies (workers) lived in a village of wooden huts near the site. This settlement, which was strictly controlled to keep order and health, would eventually become Elan Village (see Elan Valley). Guards controlled access in and out; this was done to reduce illness and to stop liquor smuggling. All new workers were deloused and examined for infectious diseases before being admitted. To keep order, a man and his wife shared a terrace house with eight single men. A school was provided for under-11-year-olds, who were expected to work on attaining that age. The camp also had a hospital for injuries, an isolation hospital for infectious cases, and a bath house. Men were allowed to drink beer at a pub, though women were not. Other facilities included a library, public hall, shop and canteen.</p><br>
<h4>Hydro-electricity</h4><br>
<p>Electric street lighting in the construction village was powered by hydroelectric generators. A century later, small-scale hydro-generation was again introduced as a by-product of some of the Elan Valley reservoirs., a renewable-energy firm, Infinis, is operating five water turbines in the district with a combined capacity of about 4 MW.</p><br>
<h4>Opening and later progress</h4><br>
<p>The project to supply water to Birmingham was officially opened by King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra on 21 July 1904. As the first four dams provided enough drinking water to meet Birmingham&#39;s needs in the early 20th century, it was proposed not to proceed with the damming of the River Claerwen at Dol-y-mynach, Ciloerwynt and Pant-y-beddau until the 1930s.</p><br>
<p>However, that phase of construction was postponed due to the outbreak of the Second World War. It was not until 1946 that work began on damming the Claerwen. Plans to build the Dol-y-mynach, Ciloerwynt and Pant-y-beddau dams were dropped because of improvements in civil engineering and materials. Instead, work began on a single, much larger, concrete dam higher up the valley. As its designers wanted the Claerwen dam to visually match the earlier dams in the Elan Valley, Italian stonemasons were contracted to decorate the facade in a mock Victorian ashlar. Queen Elizabeth II officially opened Claerwen Reservoir in 1952 in one of her first engagements as monarch.</p><br>
<p>A scale model of the reservoir network, in the form of ornamental ponds, is located in Cannon Hill Park in Birmingham.</p><br>
<h3>Dam Busters</h3><br>
<p>In 1942, the Nant-y-Gro dam, which had been originally built to provide water for the navvies&#39; village, was used by Barnes Wallis to prove his theory that an underwater explosion could create sufficient hydrostatic pressure to collapse a dam wall. The test proved successful as a significant breach in the middle of the 11 m dam wall was caused by a charge placed at its base.</p><br>
<p>The lessons learned at Nant-y-Gro green lit the development of the "Upkeep" bouncing bombs. They were used in the 1943 Dam Busters raid when RAF Bomber Command breached and damaged several dams in the Ruhr Valley, Germany.</p><br>
<p>The remains of the breached Nant-y-Gro dam are in much the same state as it was left in 1942, although partly obscured by trees.</p><br>
<p>After the Dam Busters raid, steel cables were strung across the valley above the Caban-coch reservoir as a precautionary measure against German reprisals.</p><br>
<h3>Aborted expansion scheme</h3><br>
<p>In the early 1970s it was proposed that the Craig-goch reservoir should be substantially increased in size with a new and higher downstream dam together with another dam to the north-west, impounding water that would otherwise have flowed down the Ystwyth valley. This scheme would have created a huge reservoir dwarfing all others in Mid Wales, and flooding miles of wild upland valleys. The proposals were eventually abandoned in the face of reducing projections for industrial water demand and an increasing awareness of the environmental issues that such an expansion might create.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>Elizabeth Clarke wrote The Valley (published by Faber & Faber, 1969) an account of Welsh hill farming life in the valley between the two main periods of construction. Many references are made to the dams, as well as an account of the later enquiry from the hill farmers&#39; point of view.</p><br>
<p>Francis Brett Young researched the Elan Valley as the basis for his novel The House under the Water imagining how the scene may have appeared in 1887.</p><br>
<p>Lituya Bay (; Tlingit: Ltu.aa. Spelled Ltua in translation of Tebenkovs log. meaning "Lake Within the Point"</p><br>
<p>) is a fjord located on the coast of the Southeast part of the USA state of Alaska. It is 14.5 km long and 3.2 km wide at its widest point. The bay was noted in 1786 by Jean-François de La Pérouse, who named it Port des Français. Twenty-one of his men perished in the tidal current in the bay.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The smaller Cascade and Crillon Glaciers and the larger Lituya Glacier all spill into Lituya Bay, which is a part of Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve. Cenotaph Island is located roughly in the middle of the bay. The entrance of the bay is approximately 500 m wide, with a narrow navigable channel.</p><br>
<p>The bay is known for its high tides, which have a range of approximately 3 m. Tidal currents in the entrance reach 9.4 km/h. The entrance is considered dangerous to navigation, especially when the tidal currents are running, but the interior of the bay provides good protection to anchored ships.</p><br>
<p>Lituya Bay is also famous for four recorded tsunamis, in 1854, 1899, 1936, and 1958.</p><br>
<h2>1958 megatsunami</h2><br>
<p>The same topography that leads to the heavy tidal currents also created the highest wave from a tsunami in recorded history. On July 9, 1958, an earthquake caused a landslide in the Gilbert Inlet at the head of the bay, generating a massive megatsunami measuring between 100 ft and 300 ft. The subsequent breaking wave possessed sufficient power to snap off all the trees up to 1,720 ft elevation on the slope directly opposite the landslide. There were three fishing boats anchored near the entrance of Lituya Bay on the day the giant wave occurred. One boat sank and the two people on board were killed. The other two boats were able to ride the waves. Among the survivors were William A. Swanson and Howard G. Ulrich, who provided accounts of what they observed. Based on Swansons description of the length of time it took the wave to reach his boat after overtopping Cenotaph Island near the bays entrance, the wave may have been traveling 120 mph. When it reached the open sea, however, it dissipated quickly. This incident was the first direct evidence and eyewitness report of the existence of megatsunamis.</p><br>
<p>The Great Bear Lake  is the largest lake entirely in Canada , the fourth largest in North America, and the eighth largest in the world. The lake is in the Northwest Territories, on the Arctic Circle between 65 and 67 degrees of northern latitude and between 118 and 123 degrees western longitude, 156 m above sea level.</p><br>
<p>The name originated from the words "Satudene" in Denesuline meaning “grizzly bear water people.” The Sahtu Dene people are named after the lake. Grizzly Bear Mountain on the shore of the lake also comes from Denesuline, meaning, “bear large hill.”</p><br>
<p>The Sahoyue (Grizzly Bear Mountain) peninsula on the south side of the lake and the Edacho (Scented Grass Hills) peninsula on the west side form the Saoyú-ʔehdacho National Historic Site of Canada.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The lake has a surface area of 31,153 km&sup2; and a volume of 2,236 km3. Its maximum depth is 446 m and average depth 71.7 m. The shoreline is 2,719 km and the catchment area of the lake is 114,717 km&sup2;. Great Bear Lake is covered with ice from late November to July.</p><br>
<h3>Arms</h3><br>
<p>Arms of Great Bear Lake include the Smith Arm (northwest), the Dease Arm (northeast), the McTavish Arm (southeast), the McVicar Arm (south) and the Keith Arm (southwest). The community of Deline is located on the Keith Arm near the outflow of the Great Bear River that flows west into the Mackenzie River at Tulita.</p><br>
<h3>Tributaries</h3><br>
<p>Rivers flowing into Great Bear Lake include the Whitefish River, Big Spruce River, Haldane River, Bloody River, Sloan River, Dease River and the Johnny Hoe River.</p><br>
<h2>Prehistoric geology</h2><br>
<p>Great Bear Lake lies between two major physiographic regions: the Kazan Uplands portion of the Canadian Shield and the Interior Plains. It was part of Glacial Lake McConnell in the pre-glacial valleys reshaped by erosional ice during the Pleistocene. Since, the lake has changed from post-glacial rebound following the ice melting. Precambrian rocks of the Canadian Shield form the eastern margin of the McTavish Arm. These rocks of the Precambrian are sedimentary and metamorphic deposits supplemented by igneous intrusions forming dikes and sills.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<h2>Human use</h2><br>
<p>The Deline settlement is on the lake, near the headwaters of the Bear River. There is an ice crossing from Deline to the winter road on the far side of the Great Bear River.</p><br>
<p>On 5 March 2016, a tank truck fell partway through the ice road just a few days after the government had increased the allowed maximum weight limit to 40,000 kg on the road. The truck, which was 3 km outside of Deline and close to the community&#39;s fresh water intake, as well as a major fishing area, contained approximately 30,000 l of heating fuel and was one of 70 truck loads intended to resupply the community. The fuel was removed from the truck by 2 am, 8 March.</p><br>
<p>Three lodges around the lake are destinations for fishing and hunting. In 1995, a 32.8 kg lake trout was caught, the largest ever caught anywhere by angling.</p><br>
<h3>Mining</h3><br>
<p>In 1930, Gilbert LaBine discovered uranium deposits in the Great Bear Lake region. The former mining area Port Radium, site of the Eldorado Mine where pitchblende was discovered, was located on the eastern shore. Echo Bay Mines Limited leased the old camp and mill at Port Radium to recover silver and copper values from 1965 to 1981.</p><br>
<p>Ponza  is the largest island of the Italian Pontine Islands archipelago, located 33 km south of Cape Circeo in the Tyrrhenian Sea. It is also the name of the commune of the island, a part of the province of Latina in the Lazio region.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The island was inhabited from neolithic through Roman times. According to local legends, Ponza was named after Pontius Pilate, Roman governor of Judea who tried Jesus of Nazareth for sedition against Roman rule. Pontius Pilates family owned a grotto on Ponza, which is still named after him. The Pontius Pilate legend of Ponzas name has recently come into dispute amongst historians, because the name "Pontia" appears in Strabos Geography. This pre-dates the birth of Pilate. It is not known if this is the same name as Ponza or a similar name. Also, Pontia means "Land of Bridges" in Latin, a name which could have been applied for Ponzas many naturally occurring arches and bridge-like landforms. Another theory is that the name is of Greek origin, from Greek pontos, πόντος, sea (see also Pontus).</p><br>
<h3>Greek and Roman periods</h3><br>
<p>In ancient times the island was called Tyrrhenia. Legend says that Ponza is what is left of the lost island of Tyrrhenia. Ponza is said to have been connected to the mainland by a narrow strip of land, which sank into the sea with most of the island below the water, with the parts remaining above sea level. The same exact phenomena happened at Capri. According to legend, there was a large city on the ancient island. There has been significant archaeological progress recently that shows this may be true. For example, it was discovered that the harbor floor of nearby Pozzuoli had sunk and risen several times in the last 5,000 years, revealing sunken Roman temples.</p><br>
<p>Ponza was first colonised by Etruscans. The island was heavily forested with giant trees in ancient times, but the forest is gone and the hills are covered with man-made terraces. Most of these terraces are no longer being used to grow food and grapes and are falling apart, due to lack of maintenance. The tallest hill on the island, called Monte Guardia, still has the rotting stumps of the extinct giant trees over eight feet wide. Crops are grown on these terraces like grapes for wine and cactus pears and fig trees.</p><br>
<p>Ponza is also suspected to be the island of Aeaea in Homers Odyssey, as the island of Circe the sorceress, where her cave or grotto was. Today it is known as Grotta della Maga Circe on the west side of the island, between Capo Bianco and Chaia di Luna beach. She was said to have lived in this cave in the winter months, spending the summer atop nearby Mount Circe on the mainland of Italy. This is where the Circe turned Odysseus men into animals and cast her spell on and seduced him and lived with him for over a year. On the west side of Ponza is the Grotta di Ulisse O Del Sangue, which means Cave of Ulysses of the Blood. The Grotto or cave is almost directly underneath the hill/peninsula called Il Belvedere, which has the Giardino Botanico Ponziano a botanical garden with a villa and the remains of a castle. These caves or grottoes are popular destinations to visit by boat only.</p><br>
<p>During Roman times, Nero Caesar, eldest brother of Caligula, was deported to Ponza in AD 29, where he was put to death the following year. Two of his sisters, Agrippina the Younger (mother of the emperor Nero) and Julia Livilla, were exiled to Ponza in AD 39 for their complicity in a plot to overthrow Caligula. They were recalled to Rome in AD 41. Julia Livilla had a mansion named Palazzo Giulia (Julias Palace) built specially for her on Ponza. The ruins are still visible. A similar mansion with the same name was also built on nearby Ventotene for Emperor Augustus exiled daughter, Julia the Elder.</p><br>
<h3>Middle Ages</h3><br>
<p>Ponza was abandoned during the Middle Ages due to constant raids by Saracens and pirates. In 1552, the Ottoman fleet under the command of Turgut Reis (known as Dragut in the West) defeated the Spanish fleet of Emperor Charles V under the command of the famous Genoese admiral Andrea Doria near Ponza.</p><br>
<h3>1700–present</h3><br>
<p>During the 18th century, the Kingdom of Naples re-colonized the island. In 1813 it was captured by British naval captain Charles Napier during the Napoleonic Wars.</p><br>
<p>The island became part of the Kingdom of Italy in the mid-19th century and it is now part of the Republic of Italy. The islands isolation destined it to serve as a penal colony by various regimes. During the two decades of fascism, Ponza and nearby Ventotene served as a prison for political opponents of Benito Mussolinis regime. The Ethiopian Prince Regent and military leader Ras Immiru, who was captured by the Italian Army in 1936, was imprisoned in a house in Santa Maria. Mussolini himself was imprisoned on the island for several weeks after being overthrown and arrested in 1943.</p><br>
<p>The island is well known for the tragic story of Lucia Rosa who threw herself into the Tyrrhenian Sea rather than being forced to marry a man against her wishes. She is viewed by many women around the world as a martyr for women&#39;s rights and symbol for human rights.</p><br>
<p>A few years ago engineers working on an ancient Roman tunnel that connected the harbour part of Ponza to the neighborhood of Santa Maria, used explosives to dig a conduit nearby &mdash; they were supposed to use a chisel. The explosive shock shattered and destroyed a 2,100-year-old Roman gallery tunnel. The tunnel that connects Ponza with Santa Maria is now repaired, but many residents complain that it does not look like it used to, with steel reinforced concrete in place of Roman bricks.</p><br>
<p>Today the island is a tourist attraction with sandy beaches like Chiaia di Luna or Half Moon Beach, now permanently closed due to falling rocks from the huge collapsing cliff above. Several tourists were killed a few years ago while sunbathing on the beach. The Italian National Park Service has installed steel cable netting to prevent further rock falls and deaths. The Roman Galleria or Roman Tunnel that connected the beach to the road is now closed because of collapsing Roman brickwork. Many beaches that were very popular are now permanently closed because falling rocks from overhead cliffs have killed vacationers.</p><br>
<p>In the late summer/early fall of 2007, six "aquanauts" spent two weeks living underwater off the coast of Ponza, breaking all other records.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Ponza and Gavi are the remains of a caldera rim of an extinct volcano, with a surface area of 7.3 km&sup2;. Ponza is approximately 5.5 mi long by 1.5 mi at its widest. It is a crescent shaped island with one large beach called Spiaggia di Chiaia di Luna (Half Moon Beach) and a few small beaches and has a mostly rocky coast made of kaolin and tuff rock. The island has layers of Kaolinite and Bentonite which used to be mined. It has many odd natural rock formations, one looks like a monk, another looks like a giant pair of work pants, Spaccapurpo (Arco Naturale O Spaccapolpi), another looks like a patch of flowers and another one looks like mushrooms, another looks like a horseman. It has the Fantasy Rock Castle and several natural bridges and arches. It also has Faragliones or giant sea stacks made of solid rock. It has several small villages, among them are Commune di Ponza, Santa Maria and Le Forna. Ponza is often confused with nearby islands like Ischia and Capri, except Ponza has no active volcanism.</p><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<h2>Archaeology</h2><br>
<p>The island is famed for its Blue Grottoes, which were created by the Etruscans. Among them are Serpents Grotto and the Roman Gallery, a Roman tunnel that connects the town of Ponza to the (now closed) large sandy beach called Chiaia di Luna on the west side. The island has many archeological ruins visible everywhere, including Egyptian, Canaanite, Greek, and Phoenician necropoli ruins in the middle of the island. There are Etruscan ruins on parts of the island jumbled with Roman ruins. A large statue called Il Mamozio ("The Mummy") or Il Mitreo, meaning miter or priest&#39;s hat, is a 3,000-year-old marble statue and was found in the harbor. Depicting a local Etrurian consul, it is now displayed in a museum in Napoli behind protective plastic, where it was reunited with its head. It is the oldest known Etruscan statue of its kind and extremely rare.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>The town of Ponza is a fishing and boating port with several large docks that can accommodate large ships. Its biggest industry is tourism followed by boatbuilding, boat repair and fishing.</p><br>
<p>The four mines at the northern end — the most beautiful area of the island — were closed down in 1975 by the Italian Environmental Protection Agency because the mining operation was destroying the wildlife and flora, which are Endangered species. The mines produced kaolin and Bentonite. Kaolin is used in making Kaolin-Pectin medicine and the manufacture of porcellain.</p><br>
<p>Ponza has a two lane road that goes from north to south, but can accommodate small cars only. An airstrip planned for the north of the island was canceled due to environmental concerns. Because there is no airstrip, seaplanes visit the island instead.</p><br>
<p>Celebrities who have vacationed on Ponza include Kirk Douglas, his son Michael Douglas, Anthony Quinn, Burt Lancaster, Gina Lollobrigida, Elsa Martinelli and Sophia Loren, Jacques Cousteau and his son, Philippe Cousteau, who filmed several documentaries in the area.</p><br>
<p>Federico Fellinis Satyricon (1969) was filmed on Ponza. Some scenes in Wes Andersons film The Life Aquatic were filmed on the island; Ponza was instead called in the movie, "Port-au-Patois".</p><br>
<p>The Rai Fiction television series, "Un&#39;altra Vita" (2014), was largely filmed on Ponza. Many of the scenes showcase the hilly landscape and rugged shoreline of the island.</p><br>
<p>Most of the people who live there raise rabbits and chickens and other animals in coops for meat to make cacciatore. Other farmed animals include goats, lamb and pigeons.</p><br>
<p>Many of the original inhabitants of Ponza are now leaving the island. They are steadily being replaced by other Italians from the mainland. Many local children simply move away after becoming adults and never return.</p><br>
<p>The local economy is in a downturn partly due to the severe restrictions on commercial fishing.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>Ferries reach Ponza from Naples, Terracina, Formia and Anzio; there are also hydrofoils (aliscafo) from Anzio and Formia that take about 75 minutes. The ferries and hydrofoils may not depart to and from Ponza during severe weather conditions. Much of Ponza is accessible by car and a bus runs the length of the island.</p><br>
<h2>Main sights</h2><br>
<p>Giardino Botanico Ponziano "Ponza&#39;s Botanical Garden"</p><br>
<p>Capo Bianco "Cape White" Italian National Natural Monument</p><br>
<p>Spiaggia di Chaia di Luna ("Moon Gravel Beach")</p><br>
<p>Grotta della Maga Circe ("Cave of the Sorceress Circe")</p><br>
<p>Grotta di Ulisse o del Sangue "Cave of Ulysses (Odysseus) of the Blood"</p><br>
<p>Monte Guardia ("Watchout Hill"), Ponza&#39;s tallest hill</p><br>
<p>Arco Naturale o Spaccapolpi, a natural arch standing in deep water looks like giant pants</p><br>
<p>Grotta Azzurra, a sea cave complex</p><br>
<p>Spiaggia delle Felci, a beach</p><br>
<p>Grotta di Serpent an underground maze of tunnels built by the Romans, much of it blocked off for safety reasons.</p><br>
<p>Grotte di Pilato, built by the Romans.</p><br>
<p>Spiaggia Di Le Forna, a smaller and tourist beach.</p><br>
<p>natural saltwater swimming pool in Le Forna.</p><br>
<p>Faraglioni di Lucia Rosa (Rocky shoals) named in honor of Lucia Rosa</p><br>
<p>Spiaggia di Frontone, a beach</p><br>
<p>Spiaggia di Santa Maria, a beach</p><br>
<p>Cala Fonte Natural fisherman&#39;s harbor, swimming on the north side is interesting.</p><br>
<p>Bue marino cave a cave where the seals where used to find cover.</p><br>
<p>cala Gaetano Beautiful sea colors, nice variety of fish during the spring time are visible.</p><br>
<p>La Caletta Also called the sunset coast where is possible to admire some beautiful sunsets.</p><br>
<p>Forte Papa An ancient fortress used to defend the island from Saracens attacks from the sea.</p><br>
<h2>Feasts</h2><br>
<p>June 20 feast of St Silverius</p><br>
<p>August 15 feast of the Virgin Mary</p><br>
<p>Kalamalka Lake  is a large lake in the Interior Plateau of southern central British Columbia, Canada, east of Okanagan Lake and approximately 4 km south of Vernon. The lake is named for the Okanagan  Indian chief who occupied its northern shores.</p><br>
<p>At different times of the year the colour of the lake can range from cyan to indigo, in different spots at the same time, earning the lake the moniker "lake of a thousand colors". The colour of the water is derived from light scattering, caused by the precipitation of calcite (CaCO3).</p><br>
<h2>Hydrology</h2><br>
<p>Kalamalka Lake is a glacial lake.</p><br>
<p>The main inflow to Kalamalka Lake is from Wood Lake that is located to the south and connected by a canal at Oyama.</p><br>
<p>The lake is drained by Vernon Creek which exits at the north end of the lake and passes through the city of Vernon and flows into the Okanagan Lake.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>Kalamalka Lake is also a home to many great beaches. Kal beach and Cosens Bay Beach, which lies right in the heart of Kalamalka Lake Provincial Park, are two of the popular beaches developed on the shores of the lake. Some of the other beaches on this lake are Jade Bay Beach, Juniper Bay Beach, Kekuli Bay Beach, Kirkland Park Beach, and on the south end, Kaloya Regional Park Beach.</p><br>
<p>Two provincial parks are situated along Kalamalka Lake, Kalamalka Lake Provincial Park and Protected Area (4209 ha) and Kekuli Bay Provincial Park (57 ha).</p><br>
<p>There are many resorts on the lake, including Owl&#39;s Nest Resort (features the only marina on the lake), Klub Kal, and more.</p><br>
<p>Kalamalka lake receives very little fishing pressure as the Lake is used mostly for recreational boating and water skiing.</p><br>
<p>Okanagan Lake is a large, deep lake in the Okanagan Valley of British Columbia, Canada. The lake is 135 km long, between 4 and wide, and has a surface area of 348 km.</p><br>
<h2>Hydrography</h2><br>
<p>Okanagan Lake is called a fjord lake as it has been carved out by repeated glaciations. Although the lake contains numerous lacustrine terraces, it is not uncommon for the lake to be 100 m deep only 10 m offshore.</p><br>
<p>Major inflows include Mission, Vernon, Trout, Penticton, Equesis, Kelowna, Peachland and Powers Creeks.</p><br>
<p>The lake is drained by the Okanagan River, which exits the lake&#39;s south end via a canal through the city of Penticton to Skaha Lake, whence the river continues southwards into the rest of the South Okanagan and through Okanogan County, Washington to its confluence with the Columbia.</p><br>
<p>The lake&#39;s maximum depth is 232 m near Grant Island (Nahun Weenox). There is one other island known as Rattlesnake Island, much farther south by Squally Point. Some areas of the lake have up to 750 m of glacial and post-glacial sediment fill which were deposited during the Pleistocene Epoch.</p><br>
<p>Notable features of the Okanagan Valley include terraces which were formed due to the periodic lowering of the lake&#39;s predecessor, glacial Lake Penticton. These terraces are now used extensively for agriculture such as fruit cultivation.</p><br>
<h2>Geographical context</h2><br>
<p>Cities bordering the lake include Vernon in the north, Penticton in the south, and Kelowna, as well as the municipalities of Lake Country (north of Kelowna), West Kelowna (west of Kelowna), Peachland (south of West Kelowna), and Summerland (north-west of Penticton). Unincorporated communities include Naramata (north-east of Penticton).</p><br>
<p>Various lake features include Rattlesnake Island (a small island east of Peachland), Squally Point (a popular cliff-diving area) & Fintry Delta on the west side.</p><br>
<p>The five-lane William R. Bennett Bridge, a floating bridge with a high boat passage arch connects Kelowna to the city of West Kelowna and the community of Westbank. This bridge replaced the three-lane floating Okanagan Lake Bridge on May 30, 2008, which had a lift span for passage of large boats.</p><br>
<h2>Steamboats of Lake Okanagan</h2><br>
<p>During the early days of settlement and development of the Okanagan region, the lack of roads in the region made the lake a natural corridor for passenger travel and freight. The Canadian Pacific Railway Lake and River Service was the main carrier on the lakes, providing freight and passenger connections between Penticton, on the Kettle Valley Railway (the Southern Mainline) and Okanagan Landing (Vernon) for connections to the CPR Mainline at Sicamous via the Shuswap and Okanagan Railway. Smaller vessels such as the SS Naramata provided passenger service to smaller settlements around the lake, as well as excursions for tourists.</p><br>
<h3>Vessels</h3><br>
<p>(freight)</p><br>
<p>(luxury-class passenger service)</p><br>
<p>(luxury-class passenger service)</p><br>
<p>(luxury-class passenger service)</p><br>
<p>(sternwheeler)</p><br>
<p>SS Naramata (excursion and water-taxi)</p><br>
<p>(Fintry Queen, excursion and water-taxi)</p><br>
<p>- 1950-1960 (Bowen Queen 1960-1965, MV Vesuvius Queen 1965-1998)</p><br>
<p>(steel ferry)</p><br>
<p>(steam tug)</p><br>
<p>(steam tug)</p><br>
<p>(ferry)</p><br>
<p>(ferry)</p><br>
<p>(1919 ferry)</p><br>
<p>(1923 ferry)</p><br>
<p>Canadian National Tug no. 6 (diesel tug)</p><br>
<p>Canadian National Tug no. 5 (tug)</p><br>
<p>MV Kelowna-Westbank (ferry)</p><br>
<p>(1912 ferry)</p><br>
<p>(1906 ferry)</p><br>
<p>(ferry)</p><br>
<p>(ferry)</p><br>
<p>Colleen (rowboat)</p><br>
<p>(ferry)</p><br>
<p>(ferry)</p><br>
<p>(ferry)</p><br>
<p>(tug)</p><br>
<p>(early steamship)</p><br>
<p>Ruth Shorts (rowboat)</p><br>
<p>(early steamship)</p><br>
<p>(early steamship)</p><br>
<h3>Landings</h3><br>
<p>Penticton</p><br>
<p>Naramata</p><br>
<p>Peachland</p><br>
<p>Summerland</p><br>
<p>Okanagan Mission</p><br>
<p>Kelowna</p><br>
<p>Okanagan Landing (Vernon)</p><br>
<p>Fintry</p><br>
<p>Carr&#39;s Landing</p><br>
<p>Ewing (Ewing&#39;s Landing)</p><br>
<p>Killiney Beach</p><br>
<h2>Recreation</h2><br>
<p>Many parks and beaches are found along the shores of the lake, which make boating and swimming very popular activities.</p><br>
<p>The lake is home to several species of fish, including rainbow trout and kokanee. It is said by some to be home to its own lake monster – a giant serpent-like creature named Ogopogo.</p><br>
<h2>Images</h2><br>
<p>The Cairngorms  are a mountain range in the eastern Highlands of Scotland closely associated with the mountain of the same name—Cairn Gorm. They form part of the Grampian Mountain range.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>The mountain range is usually referred to as The Cairngorms but this modern derivation from the individual mountain Cairn Gorm to represent the whole range is potentially misleading — Watson (1975) refers to it as a nickname explaining that the range&#39;s former name is Am Monadh Ruadh—the red hills distinguishing them from Am Monadh Liath—the grey hills to the west of the River Spey.</p><br>
<p>Ironically—naming the range after Cairn Gorm seemingly creates a contradiction since Cairn Gorm means Blue Cairn —taking that literally would make the red hills the blue hills, changing the old name entirely. This irony appears to have been missed by many for both names were used in the naming of the National Park that incorporates the range. Its official English name, Cairngorms National Park, translates into Gaelic as the Blue Hills National Park, with its Gaelic strap-line, Pairc Naiseanta a Mhonaidh Ruaidh, translating into English as the Red Hills National Park. However, the Gaelic gorm is also used as an adjective and verb, meaning green or greening and is often seen in connection with growing grass. Monadh Ruadh refers to the colour of the soil and Cairn Gorm refers to the green scenery.</p><br>
<p>In Alexander (1928) the author refers to Colonel T. Thornton visiting the area about 1786, and his book Sporting Tour published in 1804 in which he refers to the range as the Cairngorms—continuing:</p><br>
<p>Both Alexander (1928) and Watson (1975) appear to suggest that Colonel Thornton&#39;s book was the first time the term Cairngorms was used in print to refer to whole group.</p><br>
<p>The controversy over the name of the Cairngorms is representative of other controversies surrounding these mountains, which have the capacity to produce strong reactions in people who regard the mountains with affection.</p><br>
<h2>Location and area</h2><br>
<p>Although The Cairngorms are within the Cairngorms National Park, they are only a part of it. Watson (1975) delineates the main Cairngorm massif as being between Aviemore in the north-west, Glen Gairn, Braemar in the south-east, and Glen Feshie in the south-west.</p><br>
<p>The approximate southern-boundary of the range runs from slightly east of Braemar, west along Glen Dee to White Bridge, through Glen Geldie to the head of Glen Feshie. The western-boundary runs down Glen Feshie (northward) and the River Spey to Aviemore. The northern-boundary runs roughly eastward from Aviemore through Glen More to Glen Avon. The eastern-boundary then runs (southward) up Glen Avon, and over Am Bealach Dearg to slightly east of Braemar.</p><br>
<p>The usual definition of the Grampian Mountains, as referring to the entire mass of the Central Highlands, would include the Cairngorms. However, some sources see the Grampians as a separate, distinct range to the south of the Cairngorms. Watson (1975), for example, describes them as running from Drumochter in the west almost to the sea just south of Aberdeen, continuing:</p><br>
<p>Gordon (1925) draws the area of the Cairngorms even more tightly: the end-papers show a map where Aviemore, River Feshie, River Dee and Creag Choinnich just make it onto the map, and Glen Geldie, and Glen Gairn do not.</p><br>
<p>Before the Regionalisation of Scotland in 1975, most of the Cairngorms were within the county of Aberdeenshire, with the rest reaching into Inverness-shire in the west, and Banffshire in the north.</p><br>
<h2>Access</h2><br>
<p>Granting the tight delineation of The Cairngorms above—there are no public roads through The Cairngorms. All the public roads in the general area either skirt The Cairngorms or stop short—providing access to them only. Historically, pedestrians have been able to cross The Cairngorms by following the traditional routes of the Lairig Ghru, and the Lairig an Laoigh, or around them by following Glen Dee – Glen Feshie, and Bealach Dearg.</p><br>
<p>From the south, and south-east motorised access ends at Linn of Dee, or Allanaquoich. From the north-west it passes Coylumbridge, Glenmore and the Sugarbowl and ends at the car park at the Cairngorm Mountain ski resort.</p><br>
<h2>Topography</h2><br>
<p>The Cairngorms consist of a large elevated plateau adorned with low, rounded glacial mountains.</p><br>
<p>Although not strictly a single plateau, the Cairngorms give the sense of being a single plateau, because the passes that cut through them are not very deep. Adam Watson gives the summit of Lairig Ghru as 835 metres, and the summit of Lairig an Laoigh at 740 metres, and The Sneck at 970 metres. Topographically, this means a walker could cross between the Cairntoul (1293m) – Braeriach (1296m) massif to the Ben Macdui (1309m) – Cairn Gorm (1245m) massif and onto the Beinn a&#39; Bhùird (1196m) – Ben Avon (1171m) massif without descending below the 740m summit of the Lairig an Laoigh.</p><br>
<p>The Cairngorms became part of Scotland&#39;s second national park (see Cairngorms National Park) on 1 September 2003. The national park is in the Scottish council areas of Aberdeenshire, Moray, Angus, Perth and Kinross and Highland.</p><br>
<h2>Mountains</h2><br>
<p>The Cairngorms feature the highest, coldest and snowiest plateaux in the British Isles and are home to five of the six highest mountains in Scotland:</p><br>
<p>Ben Macdhui (1309 m)</p><br>
<p>Braeriach (1296 m)</p><br>
<p>Cairn Toul (1293 m)</p><br>
<p>Sgor an Lochain Uaine (1258 m)</p><br>
<p>Cairn Gorm (1245 m)</p><br>
<p>These mountains are all Munros, and there are a further 13 mountains with this categorisation across the area, of which another five are among the twenty highest peaks in the country.</p><br>
<p>After she had climbed to the top of Ben Macdui on 7 October 1859, Queen Victoria wrote: "It had a sublime and solemn effect, so wild, so solitary&mdash;no one but ourselves and our little party there... I had a little whisky and water, as the people declared pure water would be too chilling."</p><br>
<p>The Cairngorms represent a major barrier to travel and trade across Scotland and helped to create the remote character of the Highlands that persists today. Passes through the hills such as the Lairig Ghru were extensively used by drovers in the 19th Century herding their cattle to market in the Lowlands, from their smallholdings in the Highlands.</p><br>
<p>The region is drained by the Rivers Dee and Spey; and the latter&#39;s two tributaries: the Rivers Feshie and Avon.</p><br>
<p>The Cairngorms hold some of the longest-lying snow patches in Scotland. The area is sparsely populated due to the extreme nature of the climate. Snow patches can remain on the hills until August or September, while in the Garbh Coire Mòr of Braeriach the snow melted just five times in the last century. In the last few years, however, the quantity and longevity of Cairngorm snow patches has declined significantly. The lowest recorded temperature in the United Kingdom has twice been recorded in the Cairngorms, at Braemar, where a temperature of -27.2 &deg;C, was recorded on 11 February 1895 and 10 January 1982. The greatest British wind speed of 150 kn was recorded on Cairngorm Summit on 20 March 1986, where speeds of over 100 mph are common.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The Cairngorms were formed 40 million years before the last ice age, when slight uplift raised an eroded peneplain based on an exposed granite pluton. The highest present-day peaks represent eroded monadnock hills. During the ice ages the ice caps that covered most of northern Scotland remained static, frozen to the ground for long periods and actually protected the rounded summits and valleys and deep weathered granite of the mountains of the area. Glacial erosion is represented in deep valleys which dissect the area. Many valleys are littered with glacial deposits from the period of glacial retreat. The most famous valley is the Lairig Ghru pass, a gouge through the centre of the mountains—a u-shaped valley, now partly filled with extensive scree produced by intense frost action during ice-free periods. Many parts of the Cairngorms exhibit classic periglacial weathering which occurred during cold periods in ice-free areas.</p><br>
<h2>Wildlife</h2><br>
<p>The Cairngorms national park is known for its wildlife. The area also features an ancient woodland, one of the last major ones of its kind in the British Isles, known as the Caledonian Forest. Much of the remains of this forest are found within the national park.</p><br>
<p>The Cairngorms provide a unique alpine semi-tundra moorland habitat, home to many rare plants, birds and animals. Speciality bird species on the plateaux include breeding ptarmigan, dotterel, snow bunting, golden eagle, ring ouzel, and red grouse, with snowy owl, twite, purple sandpiper and Lapland bunting seen on occasion. In the forests, capercaillie, black grouse, Scottish crossbill, parrot crossbill and crested tit are found.</p><br>
<p>Of particular fame is the RSPB (Royal Society for the Protection of Birds) reserve at Abernethy Forest and Loch Garten. A famous pair of ospreys are present in the summer months, and they often attract large crowds to see them. The forest is home to the endangered capercaillie and endemic Scottish crossbill.</p><br>
<p>Scottish red deer, roe deer, mountain hare, pine marten, red squirrel, Scottish wildcat and otter are all present, as well as The Cairngorm Reindeer, the only herd of reindeer in the British Isles. They now roam the high Cairngorms, after being re-introduced in the 1950s by a Swedish herdsman. The herd is now stable at around 150 individuals, some born in Scotland and some introduced from Sweden.</p><br>
<h3>Threats to the ecosystem</h3><br>
<p>The Cairngorms represents an unusually cold area of mountains in a maritime climate at 57 degrees north. The climate is projected to warm and precipitation patterns to change under present climate change models. This is an over-riding concern for the long-term conservation of this area. ptarmigan has been considered as an indicator species for this process, although the natural population cycles of this bird do not seem to have been disrupted as yet.</p><br>
<p>Other man-made threats include the problems of popularity in a country with limited wilderness resources and a large, relatively affluent urban population. These include various types of recreation and the associated trampling damage and erosion, disturbance, litter and threats to water quality.</p><br>
<h2>Leisure</h2><br>
<p>A skiing and winter sports industry is concentrated in the Cairngoms, with three of Scotland&#39;s five resorts situated here. They are the Cairn Gorm Ski Centre, Glenshee Ski Centre and The Lecht Ski Centre.</p><br>
<p>A funicular railway opened here in late 2001, running from a base station at 637 metres up to the Ptarmigan Centre, situated at 1097 metres, 150 metres from the summit of Cairn Gorm. It was built amidst some controversy, with supporters of the scheme claiming that it would bring valuable tourist income into the area, whilst opponents argued that such a development was unsuitable for a supposedly protected area.</p><br>
<p>The mountains are also very popular for hill-walking, winter sports, birdwatching, climbing, deer stalking, gliding and fly fishing. However, the area can be very hazardous at times, with dangerous and unpredictable weather conditions. Because of this, all safety precautions must be taken whilst out in the mountains. What is often described as Britain&#39;s worst mountaineering tragedy, the Cairngorm Plateau Disaster, left five children and one adult dead in November 1971.</p><br>
<p>The area has long attracted winter climbers, especially to the northern corries. It boasts what was for a time probably the world&#39;s hardest traditionally protected mixed climb: "The Hurting", grade XI.</p><br>
<p>The Frank Bruce Sculpture Trail is located near Feshiebridge. This short trail through the woods features a sculptures created by Frank Bruce between 1965 and 2009.</p><br>
<p>In 1964, physicist Peter Higgs of Edinburgh was walking in the Cairngorms when he had his famous idea about symmetry-breaking in the electroweak theory, now a key element of the standard model of particle physics. The eponymous Higgs boson was eventually detected by experiment in 2012.</p><br>
<h2>Settlements in the Cairngorms</h2><br>
<p>Aviemore</p><br>
<p>Tomintoul</p><br>
<p>Dulnain Bridge</p><br>
<p>Newtonmore</p><br>
<p>Dalwhinnie</p><br>
<p>Kingussie</p><br>
<p>Boat of Garten</p><br>
<p>Nethy Bridge</p><br>
<p>Ballater</p><br>
<p>Braemar</p><br>
<p>Carrbridge</p><br>
<p>Kincraig</p><br>
<h2>Visitor attractions</h2><br>
<p>Cairngorm Mountain</p><br>
<p>Ben Macdui</p><br>
<p>Cairn Gorm Ski Centre</p><br>
<p>Loch Morlich</p><br>
<p>Strathspey Steam Railway</p><br>
<p>Loch Garten Osprey Centre</p><br>
<p>Abernethy Forest RSPB</p><br>
<p>Beinn a&#39; Bhùird</p><br>
<p>Highland Wildlife Park</p><br>
<p>Glenshee Ski Centre</p><br>
<p>Lecht Ski Centre</p><br>
<p>The Cairngorm Reindeer Centre</p><br>
<p>Turlough Hill, also known as Tomaneena, is a 681 m mountain in County Wicklow in Ireland and site of Ireland&#39;s only pumped-storage hydroelectricity plant. The power station is owned and operated by the ESB and can generate up to 292 MW of electricity at times of peak demand.</p><br>
<h2>The mountain</h2><br>
<p>The historian Liam Price recorded that the mountain was known locally as Tomaneena; Turlough Hill is the name given to it by the ESB when they surveyed the site for the pumped-storage scheme. It is 681 m high and is the 136th highest summit in Ireland. The summit is located to the south-west of the upper reservoir and is easily reached via the tarmac access road that begins at the top of the Wicklow Gap. It is also possible to reach the summit from Glendalough or from the summits of neighbouring Camaderry and Conavalla mountains.</p><br>
<p>The underlying geology of the mountain is granite, covered with blanket bog, which is a habitat for heather, purple moor grass and Sphagnum moss. A number of alpine plants grow near the summit: dwarf willow, cowberry, crowberry, fir clubmoss and common bilberry. To the north-east of the summit, at the head of Glendasan valley, is Lough Nahanagan, a corrie lake carved by a glacier at the end of the last ice age.</p><br>
<h2>The pumped-storage scheme</h2><br>
<p>The Turlough Hill Power Station is owned and operated by the Electricity Supply Board (ESB).</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>Whilst the original name is Tomaneena, renaming it ‘Turlough Hill’ has a certain validity. The pumped storage station draws water from the mountain top lake, which thus becomes a ‘dry lake’. There is a geological feature known as a Turlough; it is defined as “(in Ireland) a low-lying area on limestone which becomes flooded in wet weather through the welling up of groundwater from the rock.</p><br>
<p>ORIGIN late 17th cent.: from Irish turloch, from tur ‘dry’ + loch ‘lake’."</p><br>
<p>The Metropolitan State Hospital was an American public hospital for the mentally ill, on grounds that extended across parts of Waltham, Lexington, and Belmont, Massachusetts. Founded in 1927, it was at one time the largest and most modern facility of its type in Massachusetts. It was closed in January 1992 as a result of the states cost-cutting policy of closing its mental hospitals and moving patients into private and community-based settings. The main complex of buildings has subsequently been redeveloped into apartments. The hospital campus was listed on the National Register of Historic Places 1994. The property also housed the Gaebler Childrens Center for mentally ill youth.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Metropolitan State Hospital&#39;s founding originated in legislation passed by the state in 1900, mandating that the state take over care for the mentally ill, which had in some cases only been handled at the local level. Site selection for a facility in the Greater Boston area, where the demand for additional space was the greatest, took until 1926. Ground was broken on the hospital buildings in 1926, and the facility was formally dedicated in 1928.</p><br>
<p>The hospital&#39;s design was reflective of the third stage of development of facilities for the mentally ill, after the Kirkbride Plan and the cottage/colony system. It also reflected the advent of roads rather than railroads as major transport arteries, as it was not located near any railroad lines. Its buildings were designed in the Colonial Revival style by Gordon Robb, with landscaping, based on principles laid down by the Olmsted Brothers, by R. Hayward Loring. At its peak, the facility had a patient population of nearly 2,000.</p><br>
<p>The facility was closed in 1992.</p><br>
<h3>Patient murder</h3><br>
<p>In 1988, Metropolitan State patient Anne Marie Davee was murdered by another patient, Melvin W. Wilson.</p><br>
<h2>Cemetery</h2><br>
<p>The hospitals cemetery still rests on the grounds, maintained by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. Gravestones are marked by number and religion; a few bear names. The cemetery is labeled the Met-Fern Cemetery and both the Fernald School and Metropolitan State lay their dead patients here. Even though Metropolitan State is adjacent to the Gaebler Childrens Center, there is no real record of any of the adolescent patients being laid to rest in the Met-Fern Cemetery.</p><br>
<h2>Redevelopment and open space</h2><br>
<p>After the hospitals closing in 1992, the property stood vacant for fifteen years, as the state considered redevelopment possibilities. In 2007, some of the complexs residential wards located in the Lexington portion of the property were adaptively repurposed for conventional residential use as part of larger apartment complex development. The Administration Building, pictured above, stands in Waltham.</p><br>
<p>The extensive wooded grounds are open to the public and protected in perpetuity from further development. The trails include part of the Western Greenway open space, connecting to the Rock Meadow conservation area in Belmont to the east and, according to plans, in 2009, to the Middlesex County Hospital area to the west.</p><br>
<p>Lake Turkana , formerly known as Lake Rudolf, is a lake in the Kenyan Rift Valley, in northern Kenya, with its far northern end crossing into Ethiopia.</p><br>
<p>The boundary between Ethiopia and Kenya has been a contentious rational distinction. A brief consideration of the topic can be found in the State Department document, It is the worlds largest permanent desert lake and the worlds largest alkaline lake. By volume it is the world&#39;s fourth-largest salt lake after the Caspian Sea, Issyk-Kul, and Lake Van (passing the shrinking South Aral Sea), and among all lakes it ranks 24th.</p><br>
<p>Lake Turkana is now threatened by the construction of Gilgel Gibe III Dam in Ethiopia due to the damming of the Omo river which supplies most of the lake&#39;s water.</p><br>
<p>The water is safe to drink, (potable), but doesn&#39;t taste very nice, (unpalatable). It supports a rich lacustrine wildlife. The climate is hot and very dry.</p><br>
<p>The rocks of the surrounding area are predominantly volcanic. Central Island is an active volcano, emitting vapour. Outcrops and rocky shores are found on the east and south shores of the lake, while dunes, spits and flats are on the west and north, at a lower elevation.</p><br>
<p>On-shore and off-shore winds can be extremely strong, as the lake warms and cools more slowly than the land. Sudden, violent storms are frequent. Three rivers (the Omo, Turkwel and Kerio) flow into the lake, but lacking outflow, its only water loss is by evaporation. Lake volume and dimensions are variable. For example, its level fell by 10 metres between 1975 and 1993.</p><br>
<p>Due to temperature, aridity and geographic inaccessibility, the lake retains its wild character. Nile crocodiles are found in great abundance on the flats. The rocky shores are home to scorpions and carpet vipers.</p><br>
<p>Lake Turkana National Parks are now listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Sibiloi National Park lies on the lake&#39;s eastern shore, while Central Island National Park and South Island National Park lie in the lake. Both are known for their Nile crocodiles.</p><br>
<p>An abundance of hominid fossils have been discovered in the area surrounding Lake Turkana.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>The lake was named Lake Rudolf (in honour of Crown Prince Rudolf of Austria) by Count Sámuel Teleki de Szék and his second-in-command Lieutenant Ludwig Ritter Von Höhnel, a Hungarian and an Austrian, on 6 March 1888. They were the first Europeans to have recorded visiting the lake after a long safari across East Africa. Natives who live around Lake Turkana include the Turkana, Rendille, Gabbra, Daasanach, Hamar Koke, Karo, Nyagatom, Mursi, Surma, and Molo peoples. For the location of many of these peoples, refer to the dialect map in the article.</p><br>
<p>J. W. Gregory reported in The Geographical Journal of 1894 that it was called "Basso Narok", meaning "Black Lake" in the Samburu language. Likewise, nearby Lake Chew Bahir is "Basso Naibor" in Samburu, meaning "White Lake". The Samburu are among the dominant tribes in the lake Turkana region when the explorers came." What the native form of this phrase was, what it might mean, and in which language is not clear. The lake kept its European name during the colonial period of British East Africa. After the independence of Kenya, the president, Mzee Jomo Kenyatta, renamed it in 1975 after the Turkana, the predominant tribe there.</p><br>
<p>At some unknown time, the lake acquired an alternate name as the Jade Sea from its turquoise colour seen approaching from a distance. The colour comes from algae that rise to the surface in calm weather. This is likely also a European name. The Turkana refer to the lake as Anam Kaalakol, meaning "the sea of many fish". It is from the name Kaalakol that Kalokol, a town on the western shore of Lake Turkana, east of Lodwar, derives its name. The previous indigenous Turkana name for Lake Turkana was Anam a Cheper. The area still sees few visitors, being a two-day drive from Nairobi. The lake is also an imaginary boundary of the Rendille and Borana and Oromo to the Turkana land. The area is primarily clay-based and is more alkaline than seawater.</p><br>
<h2>Biology</h2><br>
<h3>Biomes</h3><br>
<p>The major biomes are the lake itself, which is an aquatic biome, and the surrounding region, which is classified as desert and xeric shrubland. The Chalbi Desert is east of the lake. During moister times, a dry grassland appears, featuring Aristida adcensionis and A. mutabilis. During drier times, the grass disappears. The shrublands contain dwarf shrubs, such as Duosperma eremophilum and Indigofera spinosa. Near the lake are doum palms.</p><br>
<h3>Plankton</h3><br>
<p>Both phytoplankton and zooplankton are found in the lake. Of the former, cyanobacteria are represented by Microcystis aeruginosa and microalgae by Botryococcus braunii. Also present are Anabaenopsis arnoldii, Planctonema lauterbornii, Oocystis gigas, Sphaerocystis schroeteri, and some others. The zooplankton includes copepods, cladocerans and protozoans.</p><br>
<h3>Fish</h3><br>
<p>Compared to other large African lakes, Turkana has relatively few fish species in total; the lake holds about 50 fish species, including 12 endemics: the cichlids Haplochromis macconneli, H. rudolfianus, H. turkanae and Hemichromis exsul, the barb Enteromius turkanae, the catfish Chrysichthys turkana, the robber tetras Brycinus ferox and B. minutus, the Rudolf lates Lates longispinis, the lampeyes Lacustricola jeanneli and Micropanchax rudolfianus, and the cyprinid Neobola stellae. Non-endemics include species such as Nile tilapia, bichirs, the elephantfish Mormyrus kannume, African arowana, African knifefish, Distichodus niloticus, the Nile perch and numerous others. During the early Holocene, the water level of the lake was higher, and it overflowed into the Nile River, allowing fish and crocodiles access. Consequently, the non-endemic fishes in the lake are mainly riverine species of Nilotic origin. Some of the non-endemics do not breed in the lake, but migrate up the Omo River and other affluents to breed. The lake is heavily fished.</p><br>
<h3>Birds</h3><br>
<p>The Lake Turkana region is home to hundreds of species of birds native to Kenya. The East African Rift System also serves as a flyway for migrating birds, bringing in hundreds more. The birds are essentially supported by plankton masses in the lake, which also feed the fish.</p><br>
<p>Some birds more common to Turkana are the little stint, the wood sandpiper, and the common sandpiper. The African skimmer (Rhyncops flavirostris) nests in the banks of Central Island. The white-breasted cormorant (Phalacrocorax lucidus) ranges over the lake, as do many other waterbirds. The greater flamingo wades in its shallows. Heuglin&#39;s bustard (Neotis heuglinii) is found in the east of the lake region.</p><br>
<h3>Reptiles</h3><br>
<p>The lake formerly contained Africa&#39;s largest population of Nile crocodiles: 14,000, as estimated in a 1968 study by Alistair Graham.</p><br>
<p>The lake also has a large population of large water turtles, particularly in the area of Central Island. The Turkana mud turtle is endemic to the lake.</p><br>
<h3>Mammals</h3><br>
<p>Over the dry grasslands ranges a frail population of grazing mammals and predators. The grazers are chiefly Grevys zebra, Burchells zebra, the beisa oryx, Grant&#39;s gazelle, the topi and the reticulated giraffe. They are hunted by the lion and the cheetah. Elephants and the black rhinoceroses are no longer seen, although Teleki reported seeing (and shooting) many. Closer to the dust is the cushioned gerbil (Gerbillus pulvinatus).</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Lake Turkana is an East African Rift feature. A rift is a weak place in the Earth&#39;s crust due to the separation of two tectonic plates, often accompanied by a graben, or trough, in which lake water can collect. The rift began when East Africa, impelled by currents in the mantle, began separating from the rest of Africa, moving to the northeast. Currently, the graben is 320 km wide in the north of the lake, 170 km in the south. This rift is one of two, and is called the Great or Eastern Rift. There is another to the west, the Western Rift.</p><br>
<p>Lake Turkana is a unique feature of the East African landscape. Besides being a permanent desert sea, it is the only sea that retains the waters originating from two separate catchment areas of the Nile. The Lake Turkana drainage basin draws its waters mainly from Kenya Highlands and Ethiopian Highlands.</p><br>
<p>The basement rocks of the region have been dated by two analytical determinations to 522 and 510 million years ago (mya). No rift was in the offing at that time. A rift is signalled by volcanic activity through the weakened crust. The oldest volcanic activity of the region occurred in the Nabwal Hills northeast of Turkana and is dated to 34.8 mya in the late Eocene.</p><br>
<p>The visible tectonic features of the region result from extensive extrusions of basalt over the Turkana-Omo basin in the window 4.18–3.99 mya. These are called the Gombe Group Basalts. They are subdivided into the Mursi Basalts and the Gombi Basalts.</p><br>
<p>The two latter basalts are identified as the outcrops forming the rocky mountains and badlands around the lake. In the Omo portion of the basin, of the Mursi Basalts, the Mursi Formation is on the west side of the Omo, the Nkalabong on the Omo, and the Usno and Shungura east of the Omo. Probably the best known of the formations are the Koobi Fora on the east side of Turkana and the Nachukui on the west.</p><br>
<p>Short-term fluctuations in lake level combined with periodic volcanic ash spewings over the region have resulted in a fortuitous layering of the ground cover over the basal rocks. These horizons can be dated more precisely by chemical analysis of the tuff. As this region is believed to have been an evolutionary nest of hominins, the dates are important for generating a diachronic array of fossils, both hominoid and nonhominoid—that is, both ape (includes hominins) and non-ape. Many thousands have been excavated.</p><br>
<p>Terraces representing ancient shores are visible in the Turkana Basin. The highest is 100 m above the surface of the lake (only approximate, as the lake level fluctuates), which occurred about 9500 years ago, at the end of the Pleistocene. It is generally theorised that Turkana was part of the upper Nile system at that time, connecting to Lake Baringo at the southern end and the White Nile in the north, and that volcanic land adjustments severed the connection. Such a hypothesis explains the Nile species in the lake, such as the crocodiles and the Nile perch. High water levels also occurred approximately 9000, 6000 and 5000 years ago, each of which were followed by drops in lake level of more than 40m in less than 200 years. It is thought that changes in the position of the Congo Air Boundary affected the ability of moisture from the Atlantic Ocean to reach eastern Africa, which had a profound influence on the level of Lake Turkana and adjacent water bodies.</p><br>
<h2>Anthropology</h2><br>
<p>Hominin fossils of some of the earliest human ancestors have been found in the Turkana Basin. Australopithecus anamensis fossils discovered by Meave Leakey in 1994 date to around 4 million years ago. Richard Leakey has led numerous anthropological expeditions in the area which have led to many important discoveries of hominin remains.</p><br>
<p>The two-million-year-old skull 1470 was found in 1972. It was originally thought to be Homo habilis, but the scientific name Homo rudolfensis, derived from the old name of this lake (Rudolf) was proposed in 1986 by V. P. Alexeev. In 1984, the Turkana Boy, a nearly complete skeleton of a Homo ergaster juvenile, was discovered by Kamoya Kimeu. More recently, Meave Leakey discovered a 3.5 million-year-old skull there, designated Kenyanthropus platyops ("the flat-faced man of Kenya").</p><br>
<p>Marta Mirazón Lahr discovered the earliest evidence of human warfare at the site of Nataruk, located near the shore of an ancient and larger Lake Turkana, and where numerous human skeletons showing major traumatic injuries to the head, neck, ribs, knees and hands are evidence of inter-group conflict between nomadic hunter-gatherers 10,000 years ago.</p><br>
<p>Many language groups are represented in the area around Lake Turkana, which is evidence for numerous migrations of diverse people over thousands of years. The current language groups include at least three separate subgroups of the Nilotic (Nilo-Saharan) and Cushitic (Afro-Asiatic) language families, which have further subdivided into more than 12 languages surrounding the lake today. In the early Holocene (during the Holocene Climatic Optimum), lake levels were high and fishing and foraging were the primary subsistence economies. This was mostly supplanted by animal-based agriculture by 5000 years ago, when the lake level was in a period of rapid fluctuation. Megalithic graves are found widely distributed on the lake shores and appear to correspond to the period when domesticated animals were first introduced to the region about 5000 years ago, while later, the dead were buried in small grave cairns. People who live in the region today commonly practice mixed subsistence, switching between hunting, fishing and animal herding based on what is feasible in a given year. However, the construction of infrastructure like Christian missionary stations, energy extraction (wind, oil) and NGO aid distribution points have made the region more connected to and dependent on outside resources for subsistence. Traditional modes of subsistence like pastoralism and fishing are now supplemented by the cash-based economy.</p><br>
<h2>Wind power</h2><br>
<p>The Lake Turkana Wind Power consortium (LTWP) plans to provide 310 MW of power to Kenya&#39;s national electricity grid by tapping the unique wind conditions around the lake. The plan calls for 365 wind turbines, each with a nameplate capacity of 850 kilowatts. As of October 2016 155 turbines had been installed with completion expected in 2017. It will be the largest wind power project in Africa.</p><br>
<h2>Dams</h2><br>
<p>The Gibe III dam is already under construction by Ethiopia along its Omo River, with general recognition that it will cause a major decrease in river flow downstream and a serious reduction of inflow to Kenya&#39;s Lake Turkana, which receives 90 per cent of its waters from the river. According to the ARWG report, these changes will destroy the survival means of at least 200,000 pastoralists, flood-dependent agriculturalists and fishers along the Omo River 300,000 pastoralists and fishers around the shores of Lake Turkana - plunging the region’s ethnic groups into cross-border violent conflict reaching well into South Sudan, as starvation confronts all of them.</p><br>
<p>The report offers a devastating look a deeply flawed development process fueled by the special interests of global finance and African governments. In the process, it identifies major overlooked or otherwise minimized risks, not the least of which is a USA Geological Survey estimation of a high risk for a magnitude 7 or 8 earthquake in the Gibe III dam region.</p><br>
<p>Impact on Lake Turkana Edit</p><br>
<p>The magnitude of the impact that the dam and possible irrigation projects induced by the dam will have on the water level of Lake Turkana is controversial. A hydrological study conducted for the African Development Bank in November 2010 concluded that the filling of the dam will reduce the lake&#39;s water level by two metres, if no irrigation will be undertaken. Irrigation would cause a further drop in the lake level.</p><br>
<p>Friends of Lake Turkana, a Kenyan organization representing indigenous groups in northwestern Kenya whose livelihoods are linked to Lake Turkana, had previously estimated that the dam could reduce the level of Lake Turkana by up to 10 meter affecting up to 300,000 people. This could cause the brackish water to increase in salinity to where it may no longer be drinkable by the indigenous groups around the lake. Currently, the salinity of the water is about 2332 mg/L, and it is estimated that a 10-meter decrease in the water level of Lake Turkana could cause the salinity to rise to 3397 mg/L. Raising salinity could also drastically reduce the number of fish in the lake, which the people around Lake Turkana depend on for sustenance and their livelihoods. According to critics, this "will condemn the lake to a not-so-slow death."</p><br>
<p>According to dam proponents, the impact on Lake Turkana will be limited to the temporary reduction in flows during the filling of the reservoir. Various sources state that the filling could take between one and three wet seasons. The total storage volume of the reservoir of Gibe III dam will be between 11.75 and 14 billion cubic meter, depending on sources. According to the firm that builds the dam this would reduce the water level in the lake by "less than 50 cm per year for three years" and that salinity "will not change in any way".</p><br>
<p>According to the International Lake Environment Committee, 90% of Lake Turkanas water is delivered by the Omo River on which the Dam would be built. With no outlet, Lake Turkana loses 2.3 meters of water every year to evaporation, and its level is sensitive to climatic and seasonal fluctuations. For purposes of comparison, the historic level of Lake Turkana declined from a high of 20m above todays level in the 1890s to the same level as today in the 1940s and 1950s. Then it increased again gradually by 7 meters to reach a peak around 1980, and subsequently decreased again.</p><br>
<p>The Environmental and Social Impact Assessment (ESIA) summary of the project did not assess the impact of the dam on the water level and water quality of Lake Turkana. The director of Kenya&#39;s Water Services Regulatory Board, John Nyaoro, argued that the dam would have no negative impact on Lake Turkana.</p><br>
<p>The Pamir Mountains, or the Pamirs, are a mountain range in Central Asia at the junction of the Himalayas with the Tian Shan, Karakoram, Kunlun, Hindu Kush, Suleman and Hindu Raj ranges. They are among the world’s highest mountains.</p><br>
<p>The precise extent of the Pamir Mountains is subject to debate. They lie mostly in the Gorno-Badakhshan province of Tajikistan. To the north they join the Tian Shan mountains along the Alay Valley of Kyrgyzstan. To the south they border the Hindu Kush mountains along Afghanistans Wakhan Corridor. To the east they are generally considered to extend to the range that includes Chinas Kongur Tagh, a peak which is included in the "Eastern Pamirs" more often than in the Kunlun Mountains, as Kongur Tagh and the Kunlun range are separated by the large Yarkand River valley; no valley of such significance separates the Pamirs and Kongur Tagh, just political boundaries.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>Since Victorian times, they have been known as the "Roof of the World", presumably a translation from Persian.: PAMIRS, a mountainous region of central</p><br>
<p>Asia...the Bam-i-dunya ("The Roof of the World"); The Columbia Encyclopedia, 1942 ed., p.1335: "Pamir (Persian=roof of the world)&quot, a region known to the locals as Pomir – “the roof of the world".</p><br>
<p>In other languages they are called: Kyrgyz Памир тоолору, Pamir Tooloru, پامىر توولورۇ; رشته کوه های پامیر, Rešte Kūh-hāye Pāmīr; Ришта Кӯҳҳои Помир, Rişta Kûhhoyi Pomir; د پامير غرونه Da Pāmir Ğruna; Uyghur: پامىر ئېگىزلىكى, Памир Езгизлики, Pamir Ëzgizliki; Urdu: پامیر کوهستان Pamir Kuhestan; or "Onion Range" (after the wild onions growing in the region); Памир or Цунлин, written in Xiao&#39;erjing: پَامِعَر or ڞوْلٍْ. The name "Pamir" is used more commonly in Modern Chinese and loaned as.</p><br>
<h3>"A pamir"</h3><br>
<p>According to Middleton and Thomas, "pamir" is a geological term. and the east and south of Gorno-Badakhshan, as opposed to the valleys and gorges of the west. Pamirs are used for summer pasture.</p><br>
<p>The Great Pamir is around Lake Zorkul. The Little Pamir is east of this in the far east of Wakhan. The Taghdumbash Pamir is between Tashkurgan and the Wakhan west of the Karakoram Highway. The Alichur Pamir is around Yashil Kul on the Gunt River. The Sarez Pamir is around the town of Murghab. The Khargush Pamir is south of Lake Karakul. There are several others.</p><br>
<p>The Pamir River is in the south-west of the Pamirs.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<h3>Mountains</h3><br>
<p>The three highest mountains in the Pamirs core are Ismoil Somoni Peak (known from 1932–1962 as Stalin Peak, and from 1962–1998 as Communism Peak), 7,495 m; Ibn Sina Peak (still unofficially known as Lenin Peak), 7,134 m; and Peak Korzhenevskaya (Пик Корженевской, Pik Korzhenevskoi), 7,105 m. In the Eastern Pamirs, China&#39;s Kongur Tagh is the highest at 7,649 m.</p><br>
<p>Among the significant peaks of the Pamir Mountains are the following:Heights of mountains over 6,750 metres in accordance with:</p><br>
<p>www.8000ers.com (retrieved 6 April 2010)</p><br>
<p>Remark: The summits of the Kongur and Muztagata Group are in some sources counted as part of the Kunlun, which would make Pik Ismoil Somoni the highest summit of the Pamir.</p><br>
<h3>Glaciers</h3><br>
<p>There are many glaciers in the Pamir Mountains, including the 77 km long Fedchenko Glacier, the longest in the former USSR and the longest glacier outside the polar regions. Approximately 12,500 km² (ca. 10%) of the Pamirs are glaciated. Glaciers in the Southern Pamirs are retreating rapidly. Ten percent of annual runoff is supposed to origin from retreating glaciers in the Southern Pamirs. In the North-Western Pamirs, glaciers have almost stable mass balances.</p><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<p>Covered in snow throughout the year, the Pamirs have long and bitterly cold winters, and short, cool summers. Annual precipitation is about 130 mm, which supports grasslands but few trees.</p><br>
<h4>Paleoclimatology during the Ice Age</h4><br>
<p>The East-Pamir, in the centre of which the massifs of Mustagh Ata (7620 m) and Kongur Tagh (Qungur Shan, 7578, 7628 or 7830 m) are situated, shows from the W-margin of the Tarim Basin an East-West extension of c. 200 km. Its North-South extension from King Ata Tagh up to the North-West Kunlun foothills amounts to c.170 km. Whilst the up to 21 km long current valley glaciers are restricted to mountain massifs exceeding 5600 m in height, during the Last Glacial Period the glacier ice has covered the high plateau with its set-up highland relief, continuing west of Mustagh Ata and Kongur. From this glacier area an outlet glacier has flowed down to the north-east through the Gez valley up to c.1850 m asl and thus as far as to the margin of the Tarim basin. This outlet glacier received inflow from the Kaiayayilak glacier from the Kongur-north-flank. From the north-adjacent Kara Bak Tor (Chakragil, c. 6800 or 6694 m)-massif the Oytag valley glacier in the same exposition flowed also down up to c. 1850 m asl. At glacial times the glacier snowline (ELA) as altitude limit between glacier nourishing area and ablation zone, was lowered about 820 to 1250 altitude metres against today. Under the condition of comparable proportions of precipitation there results from this a glacial depression of temperature of at least 5 to 7.5 °C.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>Coal is mined in the west, though sheep herding in upper meadowlands are the primary source of income for the region.</p><br>
<h2>Exploration</h2><br>
<p>The lapis lazuli found in Egyptian tombs is thought to come from the Pamir area in Badakhshan province of Afghanistan. About 138 BC Zhang Qian reached the Fergana Valley northwest of the Pamirs. Ptolemy vaguely describes a trade route through the area. From about 600 AD, Buddhist pilgrims travelled on both sides of the Pamirs to reach India from China. In 747 a Tang army was on the Wakhan River. There are various Arab and Chinese reports. Marco Polo may have travelled along the Panj River. In 1602 Bento de Goes travelled from Kabul to Yarkand and left a meager report on the Pamirs. In 1838 Lieutenant John Wood reached the headwaters of the Pamir River. From about 1868 to 1880, a number of Indians in the British service secretly explored the Panj area. In 1873 the British and Russians agreed to an Afghan frontier along the Panj River. From 1871 to around 1893 several Russian military-scientific expeditions mapped out most of the Pamirs (Alexei Pavlovich Fedchenko, Nikolai Severtzov, Captain Putyata and others. Later came Nikolai Korzhenevskiy). Several local groups asked for Russian protection from Afghan raiders. The Russians were followed by a number of non-Russians including Ney Elias, George Littledale, the Earl of Dunmore, Wilhelm Filchner and Lord Curzon who was probably the first to reach the Wakhan source of the Oxus River. In 1891 the Russians informed Francis Younghusband that he was on their territory and later escorted a Lieutenant Davidson out of the area (Pamir Incident). In 1892 a battalion of Russians under Mikhail Ionov entered the area and camped near the present Murghab. In 1893 they built a proper fort there (Pamirskiy Post). In 1895 their base was moved to Khorog facing the Afghans.</p><br>
<p>In 1928 the last blank areas around the Fedchenko Glacier were mapped out by a German-Soviet expedition under Willi Rickmer Rickmers.</p><br>
<h2>Discoveries</h2><br>
<p>In the early 1980s, a deposit of gemstone-quality clinohumite was discovered in the Pamir Mountains. It was the only such deposit known until the discovery of gem-quality material in the Taymyr region of Siberia, in 2000.</p><br>
<h2>Transport</h2><br>
<p>The Pamir Highway, the worlds second highest international road, runs from Dushanbe in Tajikistan to Osh in Kyrgyzstan through the Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Province, and is the isolated regions main supply route. The Great Silk Road crossed a number of Pamir Mountain ranges.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>In December 2009, the New York Times featured articles on the possibilities for tourism in the Pamir area of Tajikistan. 2013 proved to be the most successful year ever for tourism in the region and tourism development continues to be the fastest growing economic sector. The META (Murghab Ecotourism Association) website (www.meta.tj) provides an excellent repository of tourism related resources for the Eastern Pamir region.</p><br>
<h2>Strategic position</h2><br>
<p>Historically, the Pamir Mountains were considered a strategic trade route between Kashgar and Kokand on the Northern Silk Road and have been subject to numerous territorial conquests. The Northern Silk Road (about 2,600 km in length) connected the ancient Chinese capital of Xi&#39;an over the Pamir Mountains towards the west to emerge in Kashgar before linking to ancient Parthia. In the 20th century, they have been the setting for Tajikistan Civil War, border disputes between China and Soviet Union, establishment of US, Russian, and Indian military bases, and renewed interest in trade development and resource exploration.</p><br>
<p>China has since resolved most of those disputes with Central Asian countries.</p><br>
<p>Lake Balkhash  is one of the largest lakes in Asia and 15th largest in the world. It is located in Central Asia in southeastern Kazakhstan and belongs to an endorheic  basin shared by Kazakhstan and China, with a small portion in Kyrgyzstan. The basin drains into the lake via seven rivers, the primary of which is the Ili River, bringing the majority of the riparian inflow; others, such as the Karatal, provide both surface and subsurface flow. The Ili is fed by precipitation, largely vernal snowmelt, from the mountains of China&#39;s Xinjiang region.</p><br>
<p>The lake currently covers an area of about 16,400 km&sup2;. However, like the Aral Sea, it is shrinking as a result of the diversion of water from rivers that feed it. The lake is divided by a strait into two distinct parts. The western part is fresh water, while the eastern half is saline. The eastern part is on average 1.7 times deeper than the western section. The largest city near the lake is also named Balkhash and has about 66,000 inhabitants. Major industrial activities in the area include mining, ore processing and fishing.</p><br>
<p>While the size of the lake is temporarily growing, there is concern about the lake&#39;s shallowing due to desertification and industrial activity.</p><br>
<h2>History and naming</h2><br>
<p>The present name of the lake originates from the word "balkas" of Tatar, Kazakh and Southern Altai languages which means "tussocks in a swamp".</p><br>
<p>From as early as 103 BC up until the 8th century, the Balkhash polity was known to the Chinese as 布谷/布库/布苏 "Pu-Ku/Bu-Ku". From the 8th century on, the land to the south of the lake, between it and the Tian Shan mountains, was known in Turkic as Jetisu "Seven Rivers" (Semirechye in Russian). It was a land where the nomadic Turks and Mongols of the steppe mingled cultures with the settled peoples of Central Asia.</p><br>
<p>During China&#39;s Qing dynasty (1644–1911), the lake formed the northwestern-most boundary of the Empire. In 1864, the lake and its neighboring area were ceded to Imperial Russia under the Protocol of Chuguchak. With the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the lake became part of Kazakhstan.</p><br>
<h2>The origin of the lake</h2><br>
<p>Balkhash lies in the deepest part of the vast Balkhash-Alakol depression, which was formed by a sloping trough between mountains of the Alpine orogeny and the older Kazakhstan Block during the Neogene and Quaternary. Rapid erosion of the Tian Shan has meant the depression subsequently filled with sand river sediments in what is geologically a very short time span. The basin is a part of Dzungarian Alatau, which also contains lakes Sasykkol, Alakol and Aibi. These lakes are remnants of an ancient sea which once covered the entire Balkhash-Alakol depression, but was not connected with the Aral–Caspian Depression.</p><br>
<h2>Relief</h2><br>
<p>The lake has an area of about 16,400 km (2000), making it the largest lake which lies entirely within the territory of Kazakhstan. It is elevated about 340 m above sea level and has a sickle shape. Its length is about 600 km and the width varies from 9–19 km in the eastern part to 74 km in the western part. Saryesik Peninsula, located near the middle of the lake, hydrographically divides it into two very different parts. The western part, which comprises 58% of the total lake area and 46% of its volume, is relatively shallow, quiet and is filled with freshwater, whereas the eastern part is much deeper and saltier. These parts are connected by the Uzynaral Strait (Ұзынарал – "long island") which is 3.5 km wide and about 6 m deep.</p><br>
<p>The lake includes several small basins. In the western part, there are two depressions 7–11 meters deep. One of them extends from the western coast (near Tasaral Island) to Cape Korzhyntubek, whereas the second lies south from the Gulf Bertys, which is the deepest part of western Balkhash. The average depth of the eastern basin is 16 m and the maximum depth of the eastern part (and of the lake) is 26 m. The average depth of the lake is 5.8 m, and the total volume of water is about 112 km.</p><br>
<p>The western and northern shores of the lake are high (20–30 m) and rocky; they are composed of such Paleozoic rocks as porphyry, tuff, granite, schist and limestone and keep traces of ancient terraces. The southern shores near the Gulf Karashagan and Ili River are low (1–2 m) and sandy. They are often flooded and therefore contain numerous water pools. Occasional hills are present with the height of 5–10 m. The coastline is very curvy and dissected by numerous bays and coves. The large bays of the western part are: Saryshagan, Kashkanteniz, Karakamys, Shempek (the southern pole of the lake), and Balakashkan Ahmetsu, and those in the eastern part are: Guzkol, Balyktykol, Kukuna, Karashigan. The eastern part also includes peninsulas Baygabyl, Balay, Shaukar, Kentubek and Korzhintobe.</p><br>
<p>The lake contains 43 islands with a total area of 66 km; however, new islands are being formed due to the lowering of water level, and the area of the existing ones is increasing. The islands of the western part include Tasaral and Basaral (the largest), as well as Ortaaral, Ayakaral and Olzhabekaral. The eastern islands include Ozynaral, Ultarakty, Korzhyn and Algazy.</p><br>
<h2>Feeding the lake and the water level</h2><br>
<p>Balkhash-Alakol Basin covers an area of 512,000 km, and its average surface water runoff is 27.76 km/year, of which 11.5 km come from the territory of China. The area of drainage basin of the lake is about 413,000 km; The river originates in Tian Shan mountains and is mainly fed by glacier. This results in daily and seasonal fluctuations of its water level with a strong increase during the glacier melting season in June–July.</p><br>
<p>The eastern part of the lake is fed by the rivers Karatal, Aksu and Lepsy, as well as by groundwater.</p><br>
<p>The area and volume of the lake vary due to long-term and short-term fluctuations in water level. Long-term fluctuations had an amplitude of 12–14 m, which was minimum between the 5th and 10th centuries and maximum between the 13th and 18th centuries. In 1946, the area was 15,730 km and the lake volume was 82.7 km. From the late 1900s, the lake is shrinking due to the diversion of the rivers supplying it. For example, Kapshagay Hydroelectric Power Plant was built on Ili River in 1970. Filling the associated Kapshagay Reservoir disbalanced Balkhash Lake, causing deterioration of water quality, especially in the eastern part of the lake. Between 1970 and 1987, the water level fell by 2.2 m, the volume reduced by 30 km and the salinity of the western part was increasing. Projects were proposed to slow the changes down, e.g. by splitting the lake in two with a dam, but were cancelled due to the economic decline in the Soviet Union.</p><br>
<p>The minimal water level in the lake (340.65 meters above sea level) was recorded in 1987, when the filling Kapshagay Reservoir was completed. The level rose to 342.5 m by January 2005 that was attributed to large volume of precipitations in the late 1990s.</p><br>
<h3>Water composition</h3><br>
<p>Balkhash is a semi-saline lake, and the chemical composition of its water strongly depends on the hydrographic features of the reservoir. Water in the western part is nearly fresh, with the content of total dissolved solids about 0.74 g/L, and cloudy (visibility 1 m); it is used for drinking and industry. Water in the eastern part is more transparent (visibility 5.5 m) and saline, with the average salt concentration of 3.5–6 g/L. The water in the western part has a yellow-gray tint, and in the eastern part the color varies from bluish to emerald-blue.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>The climate of the lake area is continental. Average temperature is about 30 °C in July and −14 °C in January. Average precipitation is 131 mm per year and the relative humidity is about 60%. Wind, dry climate and high summer temperatures result in high evaporation rate – 950 mm in cold and up to 1200 mm in dry years. Wind has average speed of 4.5–4.8 m/s and blows mainly southward in the western part and to the south-west in the eastern part. The wind induces waves up to 2–3.5 m in height and steady clockwise currents in the western part.</p><br>
<p>There are 110–130 sunny days per year with the average irradiance of 15.9 MJ/m per day. Water temperature at the surface of the lake varies from 0 °C in December to 28 °C in July. The average annual temperature is 10 °C in the western and 9 °C in the eastern parts of the lake. The lake freezes every year between November and early April, and the melting is delayed by some 10–15 days in the eastern part.</p><br>
<h2>Flora and fauna</h2><br>
<p>The shores of the lake contain individual willow trees and riparian forests, mostly composed of various species of Populus. Plants include common reed (Phragmites australis), lesser Indian reed mace (Typha angustata ) and several species of cane – Schoenoplectus littoralis, S. lacustris and endemic S. kasachstanicus. Under water grow two types of Myriophyllum – spiked (M. spicatum) and whorled (M. verticillatum); several kinds of Potamogeton – shining (P. lucens), perfoliate (P. perfoliatus), kinky (P. crispus), fennel (P. pectinatus) and P. macrocarpus; as well as common bladderwort (Utricularia vulgaris), rigid hornwort (Ceratophyllum demersum) and two species of Najas. Phytoplankton, the concentration of which was 1.127 g/L in 1985, is represented by numerous species of algae.</p><br>
<p>The lake used to have a rich fauna, but since 1970, biodiversity began to decline due to deterioration of water quality. Before then, there were abundant shellfish, crustaceans, chironomidae and oligochaeta, as well as zooplankton (concentration 1.87 g/L in 1985), especially in the western part. The lake hosted about 20 species of fish, 6 of which were native: Ili marinka (Schizothorax pseudoaksaiensis), Balkhash marinka (S. argentatus), Balkhash perch (Perca schrenkii), Triplophysa strauchii, T. labiata and Balkhash minnow (Rhynchocypris poljakowi). Other fish species were alien: common carp (Cyprinus carpio), spine, Oriental bream (Abramis brama orientalis), Aral barbel (Luciobarbus brachycephalus), Siberian dace (Leuciscus baicalensis), tench (Tinca tinca), European perch (Perca fluviatilis), catfish, Diptychus, Prussian carp (Carassius gibelio) and others. The fishery was focused on carp, perch, asp (Aspius aspius) and bream.</p><br>
<p>Abundant and dense reeds in the southern part of the lake, especially in the delta of Ili River, served as a haven for birds and animals. Changes in the water level led to the degradation of the delta – since 1970, its area decreased from 3,046 to 1,876 km, reducing wetlands and riparian forests which were inhabited by birds and animals. Land development, application of pesticides, overgrazing and deforestation also contributed to the decrease in biodiversity. Of the 342 species of vertebrate, 22 are endangered and are listed in the Red Book of Kazakhstan. Forests of the Ili delta were inhabited by the rare (now probably extinct) Caspian tiger and its prey, wild boar. Around the 1940s, Canadian muskrat was brought to the Ili delta; it quickly acclimatized, feeding on Typha, and was trapped for fur, up to 1 million animals per year. However, recent changes in the water level destroyed its habitat, bringing the fur industry to a halt.</p><br>
<p>Balkhash is also the habitat of 120 types of bird, including cormorants, marbled teal, pheasants, golden eagle and great egret; 12 of those are endangered, including great white pelican, Dalmatian pelican, Eurasian spoonbill, whooper swan and white-tailed eagle.</p><br>
<h2>Cities and economy</h2><br>
<p>In 2005, 3.3 million people lived in the basin of the Lake Balkhash, including residents of Almaty – the largest city of Kazakhstan. The largest city on the lake is Balkhash with 66,724 inhabitants (2010). It is located on the northern shore and has a prominent mining and metallurgy plant. A large copper deposit was discovered in the area in 1928–1930 and is being developed in the villages north of the lake. Part of the motorway between Bishkek and Karaganda runs along the western shore of the lake. The western shore also hosts military installations built during the Soviet era, such as radar missile warning systems. The southern shore is almost unpopulated and has only a few villages. The nature and wild life of the lake attract tourists, and there are several resorts on the lake.</p><br>
<h3>Fishing</h3><br>
<p>The economic importance of the lake is mostly in its fishing industry. Systematic breeding of fish began in 1930; the annual catch was 20 thousand tonnes in 1952, it increased to 30 thousands in the 1960s and included up to 70% of valuable species. However, by the 1990s production fell to 6,600 tonnes per year with only 49 tonnes of valuable breeds. The decline is attributed to several factors, including the halt of reproduction programs, poaching and decline in water level and quality.</p><br>
<h3>Energy projects</h3><br>
<p>In 1970, the 364-megawatt Kapshagay Hydroelectric Power Plant was built on the Ili River, drawing water out of the new Kapshagay Reservoir for irrigation. Ili&#39;s water is also extensively used upstream, in the Xinjiang province of China, for the cultivation of cotton. Currently, there is a project for an additional counter-regulatory dam 23 km downstream from the Kapchagay. The associated 49.5-MW Kerbulak Hydroelectric Power Plant will partially solve the problem of providing electricity to the southern areas of Kazakhstan and will serve as a buffer for daily and weekly fluctuations in the water level of Ili River.</p><br>
<p>Energy supply to the south-eastern part of Kazakhstan is an old problem, with numerous solutions proposed in the past. Proposals to build power plants on Balkhash in the late 1970s and 1980s stalled, and the initiative to erect a nuclear plant near the village Ulken met strong opposition from environmentalists and residents. Therefore, in 2008, the Kazakh government reconsidered and announced building of a Balkhash Thermal Power Plant.</p><br>
<h3>Navigation</h3><br>
<p>There is a regular ship navigation through the lake, mouth of Ili River and Kapchagay Reservoir. The main piers are Burylbaytal and Burlitobe. The ships are relatively light due to the limiting depth in some parts of the lake; they are used mainly for catching fish and transporting fish and construction materials. The total length of the waterway is 978 km, and the navigation period is 210 days/year.</p><br>
<p>Navigation on the Lake Balkhash originated in 1931 with the arrival of two steamers and three barges. By 1996, up to 120 thousand tonnes of construction materials, 3,500 tonnes of ore, 45 tonnes of fish, 20 tonnes of melons and 3,500 passengers were transported on Balkhash. However, these values decreased by 2004 to 1000 passengers and 43 tonnes of fish. In 2004, the Balkhash fleet consisted of 87 vessels, including 7 passenger ships, 14 cargo barges and 15 tugboats. The government projects that by 2012, the transported volume in the Ili-Balkhash basin will reach 233 thousand tonnes of construction materials, at least 550 thousand tonnes of</p><br>
<p>livestock and agriculture products and at least 53 tonnes of fish. Development of eco-tourism is expected to increase the passenger traffic to 6,000 people per year.</p><br>
<h2>Environmental and political issues</h2><br>
<p>There are serious concerns about the ecology of the lake, especially in the view of repeating the environmental disaster at the Aral Sea. Salt dust is blown away from the dried areas, contributing to the generation of Asian dust storms, increase the soil salinity and adversely influencing the climate. Increasing formation of silt in the river&#39;s delta further reduces the inflow of water to the lake.</p><br>
<p>Another factor affecting the ecology of the Ili-Balkhash basin is emissions due to mining and metallurgical processes, mostly at the Balkhash Mining and Metallurgy Plant operated by Kazakhmys. In the early 1990s, emission level was 280–320 thousand tonnes per year, depositing 76 tonnes of copper, 68 tonnes of zinc and 66 tonnes of lead on the surface of the lake. Since then, emission almost doubled. Contaminants are also brought from the dump sites by the dust storms.</p><br>
<p>In 2000, a major conference "Balkhash 2000" brought together environmental scientists from different countries, as well as representatives of business and government. The conference adopted a resolution and appeal to the Government of Kazakhstan and international organizations, suggesting new ways of managing the ecosystems of Alakol and Balkhash basins. At the 2005 International Environmental Forum devoted to Lake Balkhash, Kazakhmys announced that by 2006 it will restructure its processes, thereby reducing emissions by 80–90%.</p><br>
<p>Contamination of Balkhash originates not only locally, but is also brought by inflow of polluted water from China. China also consumes 14.5 km of water per year from Ili River, with a planned increase by 3.6 times. In 2007, Kazakhstan Government proposed a price reduction for sales of Kazakh products to China in exchange for reduction of water consumption from Ili River, but the offer was declined by China.</p><br>
<p>Lake Hévíz is located in Hévíz, Hungary, near the western end of Lake Balaton, 5 mi from Keszthely.</p><br>
<p>It is the largest thermal lake in the world, which is available to bath. (47,500 m&sup2; in area). The flow of water is very strong and the water in the lake is completely replenished every 72 hours.</p><br>
<h2>Microscopic organisms of the lake</h2><br>
<p>The fauna and flora are unique in Lake Hévíz due to the temperature and chemical composition of the water, contains carbonic acid, calcium, magnesium, hydrogen carbonate, reduced sulfuric compounds as well as oxygen in solution. Several species so far can be found only in this lake.</p><br>
<p>Bacteria is the dominant life form in the lake; it is possible that this is a cause of the curative effect. Several taxa can be found here. Most common Cyanobacteria are filamentous blue-green algae (Oscillatoria princeps, O. tenuis, O. jasoruensis, O. chlorina, Spirulina major). It is interesting to note that half of the blue species are thermophile, stenoterm ones. There are two thermophile blue green alga species (Pseudanabaena papillaterminata, Pseudanabaena crassa) of which Lake Hévíz is the only Hungarian habitat.</p><br>
<p>Bacterial tektons are typical of the lake. The crater is covered mostly by Thiothrix sp. and Beggiatoa sp. from a depth of 1.5 m to the opening of the springcave. These together with the bacterium species play an important role in the lake&#39;s sulfur cycle.</p><br>
<p>Actinomycetes (Streptomyces sp., Micromonospora sp.) are also worth mentioning. Micromonospora heviziensis for instance, a very powerful protein and cellulose decomposer, can only be found here in the world. Microbispora amethystogenes on the other hand, which accumulates iodine in its cells, is to be found in only few lakes in the world. Unfortunately this latter species has not been found in the lake since the 1980s as a result of excessive mining.</p><br>
<p>Changing environment affected other bacteria as well. Micromonospora carbonacea and M. chalcea was not detected in the 1990s. Actinomycetes communities have become dominated by Micromonospora purpureochromogenes, while M. heviziensis was suppressed. Antibiotics secreting Streptomyces are likely to be found.</p><br>
<p>Green algae &ndash; especially Chlorella sp. &ndash; are present all over the lake except for the springcave and its surroundings. Navicula cryptocephala and Navicula capitatoradiata are common diatoms in the lake. The biodiversity of the phytoplankton is poor and its biomass is low, thus the lake&#39;s trophic level ranges from oligotrophic to mesotrophic.</p><br>
<p>There are two new species of Nematoda: Crocodolrylaimus thermalis and Neoactinolaimus tepidus. There can be found real rarities among Rotatorias as well (Epiphanes brachionus var. Spinosus, Lecane inermis), which are only present in warm waters. Jenő Ponyi has described the lake&#39;s primitive crustaceans in detail. Also a unique Hydracarina acarus is said to have found its habitat outside the fence surrounding the lake.</p><br>
<h2>Medicinal properties</h2><br>
<p>The waters are reported to be beneficial to patients suffering from rheumatic diseases and locomotor disorders, among others. There is a thriving health tourism industry in the area.</p><br>
<p>The Poor Knights Islands are a group of islands off the east coast of the Northland Region of the North Island of New Zealand. They lie 50 km to the north-east of Whangarei, and 22 km offshore halfway between Bream Head and Cape Brett. Uninhabited since the 1820s, they are a nature reserve and popular underwater diving spot. The Poor Knights Islands Marine Reserve surrounds the island. Beaglehole  comments that the origin of the island name is not clear, and could be related to the Poor Knights of Windsor, or, he speculates that the islands were named is said to derive from their resemblance to Poor Knight&#39;s Pudding, a bread-based dish topped with egg and fried, popular at the time of discovery by Europeans.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The chain consists of two large islands (Tawhiti Rahi, the larger at 151.5 hectare, and Aorangi (101 hectare)) with a group of smaller islets between the two, the largest of which is Motu Kapiti. The islands are the eroded remnants of a 4-million-year-old rhyolitic volcano.</p><br>
<h3>Oceanography</h3><br>
<p>Spring tide range for the islands is around 2 m, decreasing to a neap tide of around 1 m. The deep water around the island results in only moderate tidal currents. These are around the same magnitude as the prevailing shelf currents. In the general vicinity of the islands mean flows are around 0.2 m/s and run toward the southeast. A remarkable feature of the region is the large internal tides that occur. These are a form of internal wave driven by the local tidal flow forcing the stratification against sloping areas of the shelf face. The surface manifestation of these waves can be seen from space. These waves generate brief highly localised accelerations. Internal wave amplitudes of around 100 m have been observed, generating flow speeds as great as 0.5 m/s.</p><br>
<h2>Environment</h2><br>
<p>The islands are protected as a nature reserve and a permit is required to land or tie boats up. Permits are usually granted only for scientific research. A notable native plant of the islands is the spectacularly flowering Poor Knights lily. Feral pigs, which had roamed Aorangi since the departure of Māori in the 1820s, were exterminated in 1936. The islands have been identified as an Important Bird Area, by BirdLife International because they are home to a breeding population of about 200,000 pairs of Buller&#39;s shearwaters.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The islands were earlier inhabited by Māori of the Ngāti Wai tribe who grew crops and fished the surrounding sea. The tribe traded with other Maori.</p><br>
<p>A chief of the tribe named Tatua led his warriors on a fighting expedition to the Hauraki Gulf with Ngā Puhi chief Hongi Hika in the early 1820s. While they were away, a slave escaped the islands and travelled to Hokianga where he told Waikato, a chief of the Hikutu tribe, that the islands had been left undefended. As Waikato had been offended by Tatua some years previous, he and his warriors set out on three large canoes to attack the islands. They arrived at the islands one night in December 1823 and soon overpowered the islanders in the absence of their warriors. Many islanders jumped off the high cliffs to avoid being taken as slaves. Tatua&#39;s wife and daughter were captured and taken to the mainland where a distant relative recognised the wife and helped the two to escape.</p><br>
<p>Tatua returned to the islands to find a scene of destruction. Only nine or ten people were left on the islands, including his five-year-old son who had been hidden in a cave during the attack. The islands were declared tapu and Tatua left with the survivors and went to Rawhiti in the Bay of Islands where he unexpectedly found his wife and daughter.</p><br>
<p>Akaishi Mountains is a mountain range in central Honshū, Japan, bordering Nagano, Yamanashi and Shizuoka prefectures. It is also called the Southern Alps, as it joins with the Hida Mountains  and the Kiso Mountains  to form the Japanese Alps.</p><br>
<h2>Origin of the name</h2><br>
<p>There are a lot of red stones (赤石 Aka-Ishi) around the Akaishi River, a tributary of the Ōi River in the southern part of Southern Alps. Then it was said that the mountain of red stone came to be called Mount Akaishi. The mountain represents the mountain range and the name Akaishi is used for the whole range mountain range, Akaishi Mountains.</p><br>
<h2>Major peaks</h2><br>
<p>Almost all major peaks of the Akaishi Mountains are in Minami Alps National Park that was established on June 1, 1964.</p><br>
<p>The range is the source of two rivers, Ōi River and Tenryū River, which flow to the Pacific Ocean.</p><br>
<h2>Panorama</h2><br>
<h2>Flora and fauna</h2><br>
<p>Alpine plants, such as Siberian dwarf pine can be seen above the tree line. Rock ptarmigan and spotted nutcracker also live in the alpine zone. Japanese serow and sika deer live in the forest belt on the mountain slopes. Callianthemum hondoense is endemic to Mount Kita.</p><br>
<h2>Walter Weston in Japanese Alps</h2><br>
<p>Englishman Walter Weston introduced the Western world to the Japanese Alps in his book Mountaineering and Exploring in the Japanese Alps. During his visits to Japan, he climbed Akaishi Mountains. Several monuments in his memory have been set up in several places in the Japanese Alps.</p><br>
<p>He climbed the following peaks:</p><br>
<p>1892 Mount Akaishi - The first non-Japanese to climb this mountain</p><br>
<p>1902 Mount Kita</p><br>
<p>1903 Mount Kaikoma</p><br>
<p>1904 Mount Hōō and Mount Senjō</p><br>
<p>Busuanga, is the largest island in the Calamian Group of islands in the province of Palawan in the Philippines. Busuanga Island is the second largest island in the province after Palawan island itself. The island is located halfway between the islands of Mindoro and Palawan with the South China Sea located to the west and the Sulu Sea to the southeast. South of the island are the two other major islands of the Calamian Group: Culion Island and Coron Island.</p><br>
<p>The western third of the island is under the municipality of Busuanga and the eastern two-thirds belong to the municipality of Coron.</p><br>
<p>Busuanga Island is mainly known as a recreational diving location due to the twelve World War II Japanese wrecks that were sunk by American navy bombings in Coron Bay, a natural anchorage near the town center of Coron, on September 24, 1944.</p><br>
<p>Kiso Mountains are a mountain range in Nagano and Gifu prefectures in Japan. They are also called the Central Alps and they combine with the Hida Mountains  and the Akaishi Mountains  to form a group collectively known as the Japanese Alps.</p><br>
<h2>Outline</h2><br>
<p>The mountain range consists of granite. The Komagatake Ropeway is on the east side of Mount Kisokoma. A lot of tourists visit the station on the top. The upper part of the mountain range is the tree line, and a lot of alpine plants grow naturally. Leontopodium shinanense of Leontopodium is endemic around Mount Kisokoma.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<h3>Major peaks</h3><br>
<p>Mount Nenjō (念丈岳), 2,291 m</p><br>
<p>Mount Nagiso (南木曽岳), 1,677 m</p><br>
<p>Mount Kazakoshi (Kiso) (風越山), 1,699 m</p><br>
<p>Mount Kazakoshi (Ena) (風越山), 1,535 m</p><br>
<h3>Rivers</h3><br>
<p>Rivers with headwaters in the Kiso Mountains drain to Ise Bay of the Pacific Ocean. They include:</p><br>
<p>Kiso River</p><br>
<p>Tenryū River</p><br>
<p>The Hida Mountains, or Northern Alps, is a Japanese mountain range which stretches through Nagano, Toyama and Gifu prefectures. A small portion of the mountains also reach into Niigata Prefecture. William Gowland coined the phrase "Japanese Alps" during his time in Japan, but he was only referring to the Hida Mountains when he used that name. The Kiso and Akaishi mountains received the name in the ensuing years.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The layout of the Hida Mountains forms a large Y-shape. The southern peaks are the lower portion of the Y-shape, with the northern peaks forming two parallel bands separated by a deep V-shaped valley. It is one of the steepest V-shaped valleys in Japan. The Kurobe Dam, Japan&#39;s largest dam, is an arch dam located in the Kurobe Valley in the central area of the mountains. The western arm of mountains, also known as the Tateyama Peaks (立山連峰 Tateyama Renpō), are dominated by Mount Tsurugi and Mount Tate. The eastern arm, known as the Ushiro Tateyama Peaks (後立山連峰 Ushiro Tateyama Renpō), are dominated by Mount Shirouma and Mount Kashimayari.</p><br>
<h3>Glaciers</h3><br>
<p>Although it was originally thought that no glaciers existed in East Asia south of Kamchatka, recent research has shown that three small glaciers still survive in Mount Tsurugi and Mount Tate owing to the extremely wet climate of the Hokuriku region allowing for very heavy snowfalls on the high peaks.</p><br>
<h2>Major peaks</h2><br>
<p>Mount Shirouma, 2,932 m</p><br>
<p>Mount Kashimayari, 2,889 m</p><br>
<p>Mount Tate, 3,015 m</p><br>
<p>Mount Tsubakuro, 2,763 m</p><br>
<p>Mount Tsurugi, 2,999 m</p><br>
<p>Mount Noguchigoro, 2,924 m</p><br>
<p>Mount Yari, 3,180 m</p><br>
<p>Mount Hotaka, 3,190 m</p><br>
<p>Mount Norikura, 3,026 m</p><br>
<p>Marousi or Maroussi  is a suburban city in the northeastern part of the Athens agglomeration, Greece. Marousi dates back to the era of the ancient Athenian Republic; its ancient name was Athmonon  and it represented one of the 10 Athenian sub-cities. The area held a main ancient temple, where Amarysia Artemis, the goddess of hunting, was adored, and the city&#39;s modern name derives from that of the goddess, Amarysia, which denotes the origin of the worship back in Amarynthos, Euboea.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Marousi is situated 13 km northeast of Athens city centre. The municipality has an area of 12.938 km. The built-up area of Marousi is continuous with those of the neighbouring suburbs Pefki, Kifisia, Vrilissia and Halandri. Within Marousi lies the biggest forest in urban Athens, "Dasos Syngrou" (also "Alsos Syggrou"). The Athens Olympic Sports Complex, the largest sports complex in Greece, built for the 2004 Summer Olympics, is located in the southwestern part of the municipality.</p><br>
<p>The main thoroughfare is Kifisias Avenue, which connects Marousi with central Athens and the northern beltway Motorway 6. Marousi has 3 stations on Athens Metro Line 1, and two suburban (Proastiakos) commuter railway stations: Nerantziotissa station and Kifisias railway station.</p><br>
<p>Marousi is also home to a number of prestigious public (Peiramatiko Lyceum Anavryton) and private educational institutions.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>Marousi&#39;s favourable infrastructure (Motorway 6, Athens Metro, Proastiakos suburban railroad) has led to strong economic growth. The main offices of the Greek subsidiaries of several multinational corporations, including Kodak, Bayer, Kimberly-Clark, Siemens, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company, Microsoft and Nestlé, and the ANT1 television studios are located in Marousi. The managing office of Consolidated Contractors Company, a large Middle Eastern and International EPC Contractor, is located in Marousi. The Mall Athens, one of the largest shopping centres in southeastern Europe, is situated in the southwestern part of Marousi.</p><br>
<p>Vivartia has its head office in Marousi.</p><br>
<p>Google Athens is headquartered in Marousi.</p><br>
<h2>Education</h2><br>
<p>The new building of Greek Ministry of Education is located in Marousi, in the district Neratziotissa. In the same district is located the School of Pedagogical and Technological Education, a Greek university. The German School of Athens is also located in Marousi.</p><br>
<h2>Sports</h2><br>
<p>Maroussi is the place of Greek Olympic Sport Center. It is located in the southwest of the suburb, in an area that is named Kalogreza. Maroussi has also some sport gymnasium such as Dais Indoor Hall and Maroussi Indoor Hall that are used by local teams. Local teams are Maroussi B.C. with long-time presence in A1 Ethniki Basketball and A.C. Doukas with many titles in Handball and Futsal. The Olympic Stadium is used as home stadium by famous clubs of Greek football, currently by AEK and in the past by Panathinaikos and Olympiacos.</p><br>
<h2>Historical population</h2><br>
<h2>Twin cities</h2><br>
<p>Marousi is twinned with the following cities:</p><br>
<p>Faenza, Italy</p><br>
<p>Niš, Serbia</p><br>
<p>Lakatamia, Cyprus</p><br>
<h2>Notable people</h2><br>
<p>Spiridon Louis (1873–1940), a Greek shepherd who won the first modern-day Marathon at the 1896 Summer Olympics, thereby becoming a national hero</p><br>
<p>Prince Michael of Greece (1938–), also known as Michel de Grece, son of Prince Christopher of Greece and grandson of King George I of the Hellenes. Prince Michael lived in Marousi from his marriage to Marina Karella in 1965, since late 1970s.</p><br>
<p>Aimilia Tsoulfa, Golden Medalist in Sailing, Athens Olympic Games 2004</p><br>
<p>Aliki Vougiouklaki (1934–1996), movie star and singer who appeared in 42 movies, mostly musicals</p><br>
<p>Vicky Kaya (1978–), fashion model and actress</p><br>
<p>Labis Livieratos, singer</p><br>
<p>Uist  or The Uists  are the central group of islands in the Outer Hebrides of Scotland.</p><br>
<p>North Uist and South Uist are linked by causeways running via Benbecula and Grimsay, and the entire group is sometimes known as the Uists.</p><br>
<p>From south to north, the inhabited islands in the Uist group are Èirisgeigh (Eriskay), Uibhist a Deas (South Uist), Grimsay (South), Beinn nam Faoghla (Benbecula), Eilean Fhlodaigh (Flodaigh), Griomasaigh (Grimsay (North)), Fraoch-eilean, Uibhist a Tuath (North Uist), Am Baile Sear (Baleshare) and Beàrnaraigh (Berneray).</p><br>
<h2>Major settlements</h2><br>
<p>The main settlements in the Uists are:</p><br>
<h3>South Uist</h3><br>
<p>Dalabrog (Daliburgh)</p><br>
<p>Loch Baghasdail (Lochboisdale)</p><br>
<p>Snaoishabhal (Snishvale)</p><br>
<p>Iochdar (Eochar)</p><br>
<p>Pollochar (Polochar)</p><br>
<p>Eirisgeidh (Eriskay)</p><br>
<h3>Benbecula</h3><br>
<p>Baile a&#39; Mhanaich (Balivanich)</p><br>
<p>Creag Ghoraidh (Creagorry)</p><br>
<p>Lioniclate (Liniclate)</p><br>
<h3>North Uist</h3><br>
<p>Càirinis (Carinish)</p><br>
<p>Ceann a&#39; Bhàigh (Bayhead)</p><br>
<p>Solas (Sollas)</p><br>
<p>Loch nam Madadh (Lochmaddy)</p><br>
<h2>16th century</h2><br>
<h3>Geography</h3><br>
<p>Writing in 1549, Sir Donald Monro, High Dean of the Isles stated of "Ywst" that it was a fertile country full of high hills and forests on the east coast with five parish kirks. He also noted that in the north of "Ywst ther is sundrie covis and holes in the earth, coverit with heddir above, quhilk fosters maney rebellis in the countrey".</p><br>
<h3>Fishing</h3><br>
<p>Monro referred to the "infinite number of fresh water loches", including Loch Bì, which is South Uist&#39;s largest loch and at 8 km long it all but cuts the island in two. Monro stated that "the sea has gotten enteries to this fresche water loche" and described the "thicke dyke of rough staines" that had been created to prevent salt water ingress. This apparently resulted in numerous fish being caught in the stones, including "fluikes, podloches, skatts, and herings" and he described another "kynd of fishe, the quhantitie and shape of ane salmont, but it has na skaills at all; the under haffe, narrest his vombe is quhite, and the upmaist haffe narrest his back is als black as jett".</p><br>
<h3>Land tenure</h3><br>
<p>Monro&#39;s description was:</p><br>
<p>This countrey is bruiked by sundrey captains; to witt, the south southwest end of it, callit Bayhastill, be M’Neill of Barray, the rest of the ile, namit Peiter’s parochin, the parochin of Howes, and the mayne land of the mid countrey callit Mackermeanache, perteins to Clanronald, halding of the Clandonald. At the end heirof the sea enters, and cuts the countrey be ebbing and flowing through it: and in the north syde of this there is ane parochin callit Buchagla, perteining to the said Clandonald. At the north end thereof the sea cuts the countrey againe, and that cutting of the sea is called Careynesse, and benorth this countrey is called Kenehnache of Ywst, that is in Englishe, the north head of Ywst, whilk term is twa paroche kirks, and is mair of profit than the rest of haill of Ywst, perteining to Donald Gormesone.</p><br>
<p>Albemarle Sound is a large estuary on the coast of North Carolina in the United States located at the confluence of a group of rivers, including the Chowan and Roanoke. It is separated from the Atlantic Ocean by the Currituck Banks, barrier peninsula upon which the town of Kitty Hawk is located, at the eastern edge of the sound, and part of the greater Outer Banks region. Roanoke Island is situated at the southeastern corner of the sound, where it connects to Pamlico Sound. Much of the water in the Albemarle Sound is brackish or fresh, as opposed to the saltwater of the ocean, as a result of river water pouring into the sound.</p><br>
<p>Some small portions of the Albemarle have been given their own "sound" names to distinguish these bodies of water from other parts of the large estuary. The Croatan Sound, for instance, lies between mainland Dare County and Roanoke Island. The eastern shore of the island to the Outer Banks is commonly referred to as the Roanoke Sound (which is also a historical name for the entire body of water now known as Albemarle Sound). The long stretch of water from near the Virginia state line south to around the Currituck County southern boundary is known as the Currituck Sound.</p><br>
<p>The sound forms part of the Atlantic Intracoastal Waterway. Its coast saw the first permanent English settlements in what became North Carolina, the Albemarle Settlements. Many inland Tidewater communities along the Albemarle today are part of the Inner Banks region of the state.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Before Europeans came to the Albemarle Sound, the Algonquian Indians lived in the region. They traveled the sound in dugout canoes, and trapped fish.</p><br>
<p>In 1586 the first European explorers sailed up the 55 mi length of the Albemarle Sound. Half a century later, the first European settlers came south from Virginia, establishing agricultural and trading colonies along the shores of the Sound. The Albemarle Sound soon became a very important thoroughfare, with small trading ships called coasters carrying cargo to and from other colonies, and larger merchant ships bringing spices, silks, and sugars from the West Indies in exchange for products such as tobacco (a major export of the southern colonies), herring, and lumber.</p><br>
<p>In 1663, Albemarle Sound was made part of the Province of Carolina by King Charles II of England and given to eight Lords Proprietors. One of these royal beneficiaries was George Monck, 1st Duke of Albemarle, for whom the sound is named.</p><br>
<p>Ferries were a common method of transportation through the swamps surrounding the Albemarle Sound throughout the history of the region. One ferry that linked the towns of Edenton and Mackeys, North Carolina, continued in service from 1734 to 1938, when a bridge was built across the Sound. Another longer bridge of more than 3 mi in length was built in 1990.</p><br>
<p>Fishing was a major industry in the Albemarle Sound. In late spring, plantation farmers would fish for shad, striped bass, and herring. Nets used by these fishermen were sometimes enormous, with some more than a mile (1600 m) long, and were frequently staffed 24 hours a day. Herring was cut and salted for export to Europe, while shad was packed in ice and shipped up the Chowan River to be sold in northern colonies. Regional striped bass tournaments attracted sport fishermen to the area, and it was considered by many to be the greatest striped bass fishery in the world.</p><br>
<p>Pollution and development in recent years has depleted the fisheries of the Albemarle Sound by seventy percent.</p><br>
<p>The Lebombo Mountains, also called Lubombo Mountains , are an 800 km, narrow range of mountains in Southern Africa. They stretch from Hluhluwe in KwaZulu-Natal in the south to Punda Maria in the Limpopo Province in South Africa in the north. Part of the mountains are also found in Mozambique and Swaziland.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>Geologically, the range is considered a monocline; part of a rifted volcanic margin. The Lebombo monocline was aligned with the Explora Escarpment off-shore Dronning Maud Land, Antarctica, before the break-up of Gondwana. The Lebombo monocline strikes N-S and dips to the east. It is composed of a sequence of Jurassic age volcanic rock, both basaltic lavas and rhyolitic flows and tuffs. The sequence rests on essentially horizontal Karoo Supergroup sedimentary rocks of the Kalahari Craton to the west and is overlain by Cretaceous to recent sediments to the east. The alternating resistant rhyolite and easily eroded basalts produce a series of parallel sharp cuesta ridges separated by savanna plains.</p><br>
<p>The range is relatively low with heights between 400 m and less than 800 m. The highest peak is the 776 m Mount Mananga. The 480 m Longwe is the highest point in the Lebombo Range north of the Letaba River.</p><br>
<p>The mountains dominate Lubombo District in Swaziland. Towns in the area include Siteki in the centre, Lubhuku in the west and Mayaluka and Big Bend in the south with the Lusutfu River running past the southern region of the mountain range. At the north lie the towns of Simunye, Tambankulu and Namaacha, and the Mlawula Nature Reserve as well as the Mbuluzi River.</p><br>
<p>A number of rivers, including the Pongola, Mkuze, and Lusutfu, cross the mountains from west to east.</p><br>
<p>The name of the mountains is derived from the Zulu word ubombo meaning "big nose".</p><br>
<h2>Protected areas</h2><br>
<p>Kruger National Park and Phongolo Nature Reserve protect part of the range.</p><br>
<p>Heimaey, literally Home Island, is an Icelandic island. At 13.4 km&sup2, it is the largest island in the Vestmannaeyjar archipelago, and the largest and most populated island off the Icelandic coast. Heimaey is 4 nmi off the south coast of Iceland. It is the only populated island of the Vestmannaeyjar islands, with a population of 4,500. The airport and the Westman Islands Golf Club cover a large part of the island.</p><br>
<p>In January 1973, lava flow from nearby Eldfell destroyed half the town and threatened to close its harbour, its main income source. An operation to cool the advancing lava with sea water saved the harbour.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Oldest tales</h3><br>
<p>The Landnáma tells that after Ingólfur Arnarson, the first settler in Iceland, spent a winter at Ingólfshöfði, he released his Öndvegissúlur (chiefs pillars) into the water and followed them west. (These were pillars associated with the chiefs chair. They were put into the sea and let float to shore. Where they came ashore, the Viking who followed it would build his farm.) At Hjörleifshöfði, Ingólfur found that his brother/close friend Hjörleifr Hróðmarsson was dead and his slaves were missing. Out at sea he could see boats going toward a small group of islands, and he set off after them.</p><br>
<p>Abducted from the north of Ireland, the slaves were called westmen (Vestmenn), as before discovering Iceland, Ireland was the most western part of the world known to northern Europeans then (c. 840). The slaves went ashore at Heimaey and took shelter in the hills. Ingólfur hunted them and killed them in revenge for their murdering his foster brother. In the process, he named various places and landmarks. For example, he named "Dufþekja", an area on Heimaklettur, Heimaeys highest hill (283 m), after the slave Dufþakur (the Icelandic version of the Gaelic Dubhthach, Anglicized as Duffy&#39;) who was said to have thrown himself off Heimaklettur at that point, preferring to take his own life than to let Ingólfur take it.</p><br>
<h3>First settlers</h3><br>
<p>In tradition, Herjólfur Bárðarson was said to be the first person to settle in Heimaey. According to the Landnáma, he built his farm in Herjólfsdalur (literally: Herjólf&#39;s valley) about 900. The archaeological excavation in 1971 of ancient ruins in Herjólfsdalur revealed that there had been settlement nearly 100 years earlier.</p><br>
<h3>Turkish Raid</h3><br>
<p>In 1627, three Arab pirate ships from the Ottoman-controlled Barbary Coast raided several towns on the south coast of Iceland and outlying islands. They attacked Grindavík and Heimaey. In Grindavík, townspeople could flee into the lava field of Reykjanes and hide indefinitely. Heimaey was so isolated that it was vulnerable and people suffered. Many heroic stories were told of the people who survived the invasion, most notably Guðríður Símonardóttir. Better known as Tyrkja-Gudda (Turkish-Gudda), she was taken by the pirates from her home at Stakkagerði on Heimaey to the slave market in Algeria. From there she bought her way back to Iceland through Tunisia, Italy and Denmark—Iceland was then under Danish rule. Upon returning to Iceland, she married the poet Hallgrímur Pétursson. The Hallgrímskirkja Lutheran church in Reykjavík is named in his honour.</p><br>
<h3>Eldfell</h3><br>
<p>At 01:00 on 23 January 1973, a volcanic eruption of the mountain Eldfell began on Heimaey. The ground on Heimaey started to quake and fissures formed. The fissures grew to 1,600 m in length, and lava began to erupt. Lava sprayed into the air from the fissures. Volcanic ash was blown to sea. Later, the situation deteriorated. When the fissures closed, the eruption converted to a concentrated lava flow that headed toward the harbour. The winds changed, and half a million cubic metres of ash blew on the town. During the night, the 5,000 inhabitants of the island were evacuated, mostly by fishing boats, as almost the entire fishing fleet was in dock.</p><br>
<p>The encroaching lava flow threatened to destroy the harbour. The eruption lasted until 3 July. Townspeople constantly sprayed the lava with cold seawater, causing some to solidify and much to be diverted, thus saving the harbour. The people were elated that their livelihoods remained intact, even though much of their town was destroyed. During the eruption, half of the town was crushed and the island expanded in length. The eruption increased the area of Heimaey from 11.2 km&sup2; to 13.44 km&sup2;. Only one man died in the eruption. The eruption is described by John McPhee in his book The Control of Nature.</p><br>
<h2>Present day</h2><br>
<p>Heimaey is home to around 4,500 people, and eight million puffins</p><br>
<p>every summer. Many millions of other birds migrate there for breeding and feeding.</p><br>
<p>The island is connected to the rest of Iceland by a ferry and Vestmannaeyjar Airport.</p><br>
<p>Most people on the island live off fishing. During an annual festival, people are allowed to catch a few puffins to share at the festival, or to eat at home.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>Some final shots of Chris Marker&#39;s film Sans Soleil are of stark white Heimaey houses slowly buried by the deep black volcanic ash of the eruption. The backdrop reveals splashes of red lava as it flows into a steel-grey sea.</p><br>
<p>Heimaey is mentioned in the song "Island" by American progressive-metal band Mastodon. The line is "Lava goddess, Ice and fire, Settling down, Ocean Geysir, Gullfoss, Heimaey 73." This refers to the eruption of Eldfell.</p><br>
<p>Keiko the whale from the Free Willy films was in real life flown to Klettsvik Bay on Heimaey as his final home before being freed.</p><br>
<p>Ashes to Dust by Yrsa Sigurdardottir (2007, English Translation 2011), the third of her murder mysteries set in Iceland, is largely set on Heimaey and focuses round the Eldfell eruption of 1973, and discoveries resulting from excavation, more than 30 years later, of a house buried in the volcanic ash.</p><br>
<p>Heimaey features in Bruce McMillan&#39;s photo-illustrated children book Nights of the Pufflings (1995). In the story a tradition of rescuing young birds, pufflings, by local children is told. The pufflings take their first flight on August nights, and get accidentally stranded in the village streets. The children then set them free at the beach at daytime.</p><br>
<p>The 1973 album Sumut by Greenlandic rock band Sume features a song called Heimaey erĸaivdlugo, or Ode to Heimaey in English.</p><br>
<p>Mount Pinatubo  is an active stratovolcanic caldera in the Zambales Mountains, located on the tripoint boundary of the Philippine provinces of Zambales, Tarlac and Pampanga, all in Central Luzon on the northern island of Luzon. Its eruptive history was unknown to most before the pre-eruption volcanic activities of 1991, just before June. Pinatubo was heavily eroded, inconspicuous and obscured from view. It was covered with dense forests which supported a population of several thousand indigenous Aetas.</p><br>
<p>The volcano&#39;s Ultra Plinian eruption on June 15, 1991, produced the second-largest terrestrial eruption of the 20th century after the 1912 eruption of Novarupta in the Alaska Peninsula.</p><br>
<p>Complicating the eruption was the arrival of Typhoon Yunya (Diding), bringing a lethal messy mix of ash and rain to towns and cities surrounding the volcano. Predictions at the onset of the climactic eruption led to the evacuation of tens of thousands of people from the surrounding areas, saving many lives. Surrounding areas were severely damaged by pyroclastic surges, ash falls, and subsequently, by the flooding lahars caused by rainwater re-mobilizing earlier volcanic deposits. This caused extensive destruction to infrastructure and changed river systems for years after the eruption.</p><br>
<p>The effects of the eruption were felt worldwide. It ejected roughly 10,000,000,000 t or 10 km3 of magma, and 20,000,000 t of, bringing vast quantities of minerals and toxic metals to the surface environment. It injected more particulate into the stratosphere than any eruption since Krakatoa in 1883. Over the following months, the aerosols formed a global layer of sulfuric acid haze. Global temperatures dropped by about 0.5 &deg;C in the years 1991–93, and ozone depletion temporarily increased substantially.</p><br>
<h2>Overview of the area</h2><br>
<p>The volcano is 87 km northwest of Manila, the capital of the Philippines. Near Mount Pinatubo, the United States maintained two large military bases in the region. The USA Naval Base Subic Bay was 37 km south of Pinatubo, and the extent of Clark Air Base was just 14 km east of the volcano&#39;s summit. The volcano is near to about 6 million people.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Mount Pinatubo&#39;s summit before the 1991 eruption was 1,745 m above sea level, only about 600 m above nearby plains, and only about 200 m higher than surrounding peaks, which largely obscured it from view. It is part of a chain of volcanoes which lie along the western side of the island of Luzon called the Zambales Mountains.</p><br>
<p>Pinatubo belongs to the Cabusilan sub-range of the Zambales Mountains, which consists of Mt. Cuadrado, Mt. Negron, Mt. Mataba and Mt. Pinatubo. They are subduction volcanoes, formed by the Eurasian Plate sliding under the Philippine Mobile Belt along the Manila Trench to the west. Mount Pinatubo and the other volcanoes on this volcanic belt arise due to magmatic occlusion from this subduction plate boundary.</p><br>
<p>Pinatubo is flanked on the west by the Zambales Ophiolite Complex, which is an easterly-dipping section of Eocene oceanic crust uplifted during the late Oligocene. The Tarlac Formation north, east and southeast of Pinatubo consists of marine, nonmarine and volcanoclastic sediments formed in the late Miocene and Pliocene.</p><br>
<p>The most recent study of Mount Pinatubo before the activities of 1991 was the overall geological study in 1983 and 1984 made by F. G. Delfin for the Philippine National Oil Company as part of the surface investigations of the area before exploratory drilling and well testing for geothermal energy sources in 1988 to 1990. He recognized two life histories of the mountain, which he classified as "ancestral" and "modern" Pinatubo.</p><br>
<h3>Ancestral Pinatubo</h3><br>
<p>Activity of Ancestral Pinatubo seems to have begun about 1.1 million years ago and probably ended tens of thousands of years or more before the birth of "modern" Pinatubo. Much of the rugged land around the present volcano consists of remnants of "ancestral" Pinatubo. It was an andesite and dacite stratovolcano whose eruptive activity was much less explosive than modern Pinatubo. Its center was roughly where the current volcano is. The projected height of the mountain is up to 2,300 m, 1.43 miles above sea level if it were a lone peak, based on a profile fitting to the remaining lower slopes, or lower if it had more than one peak.</p><br>
<p>The old volcano is exposed in the walls of an old 3.5 x wide caldera, referred to as Tayawan Caldera by Delfin. Some of the nearby peaks are the remnants of ancestral Pinatubo, left behind when the softer parts of the old mountain slopes were eroded by weathering. Ancestral Pinatubo is a somma volcano with modern Pinatubo as the new cone.</p><br>
<p>Mount Dorst, to the east, is part of the dip slope of the ancestral Pinatubo. Several mountains near modern Pinatubo are old satellite vents of ancestral Pinatubo, forming volcanic plugs and lava domes. These satellite vents were probably active around the same time as the ancestral volcano and include the domes of Mount Negron, Mount Cuadrado, Mount Mataba and the Bituin and Tapungho plugs.</p><br>
<h3>Modern Pinatubo</h3><br>
<p>c. 33,000 BC: After a long period of dormancy, Modern Pinatubo was born in Ancestral Pinatubo&#39;s cataclysmic and most explosive eruptions, estimated to be five times larger than the June 1991 eruption. It deposited all around the volcano up to 25 km3 of pyroclastic surge material up to 100 m thick. The total volume of volcanic material ejected during the eruptions is unknown. The removal of so much material from the underlying magma chamber resulted in the Tayawan caldera. The violent eruptive period started by the eruption is referred to by Delfin as the Inararo Eruptive Period, named after a village that was destroyed in the 1991 eruption.</p><br>
<p>Later eruptions of modern Pinatubo occurred episodically and lasted for periods much shorter than the repose intervals between them. Subsequent eruptions and eruptive period occurred about:</p><br>
<p>c. 15,000 BC (Sacobia Eruptive Period)</p><br>
<p>c. 7000 BC (Pasbul Eruptive Period). Its eruptions were as energetic, if not as voluminous as the Inararo eruptions.</p><br>
<p>c. 4000–3000 BC (Crow Valley Eruptive Period). This and the Mara-unot period&#39;s eruptions were smaller than the Inararo eruptions but about 2 to 3 times as big as that of 1991 based on the pyroclastic flow runout distances and depths of valley filling.</p><br>
<p>c. 1900–300 BC (Maraunot Eruptive Period)</p><br>
<p>c. AD 1500 (Buag Eruptive Period). Its eruptions were roughly the same size as those of 1991.</p><br>
<p>Each of these eruptions seems to have been very large, ejecting more than 10 km³ of material and covering large parts of the surrounding areas with pyroclastic flow deposits. Some eruptive periods have lasted decades and perhaps as much as several centuries and might appear to include multiple large explosive eruptions.</p><br>
<p>The maximum size of eruptions in each eruptive period though has been getting smaller through the more than 35,000-year history of modern Pinatubo, but this might be an artifact of erosion and burial of older deposits. The oldest eruption of modern Pinatubo, Inararo, was also its largest.</p><br>
<p>The 1991 eruption was among the smallest documented in its geologic record.</p><br>
<p>The volcano has never grown very large between eruptions, because it produces mostly unwelded, easily erodible deposits and periodically destroys the viscous domes that fill its vents. After the Buag eruption (c. 1500 AD), the volcano lay dormant, its slopes becoming completely covered in dense rainforest and eroded into gullies and ravines. The c. 500-year repose though between the Buag and present eruptive periods is among the shorter repose periods recognized in its geologic history.</p><br>
<h4>Possible precursor in 1990</h4><br>
<p>On July 16, 1990, the major 1990 Luzon earthquake of magnitude 7.7 struck northern Central Luzon and the Cordilleras. This was the largest earthquake recorded in 1990,</p><br>
<p>comparable in size to the 1906 San Francisco earthquake and the 2008 Sichuan earthquake. Its epicenter was in the municipality of Rizal, Nueva Ecija,</p><br>
<p>about 100 km northeast of Pinatubo, and faulted northwest-southeast through three provinces.</p><br>
<p>It also followed the Philippine Fault System west as far as Baguio City, which was devastated, and is located about 80 km north-northeast of Pinatubo, leading volcanologists to speculate that it might ultimately have triggered the 1991 eruption, although this is impossible to prove conclusively. Two weeks after the earthquake, local residents reported steam coming from the volcano, but scientists who visited there in response found only small rockslides rather than any pre-eruptive activity.</p><br>
<h4>1991 activities leading to the eruption</h4><br>
<p>On March 15, 1991, a succession of earthquakes was felt by villagers on the northwestern side of the volcano. Further earthquakes of increasing intensity were felt over the next two weeks, and it became clear some kind of volcanic activity was likely. On April 2, the volcano awoke, with phreatic eruptions occurring near the summit along a 1.5 km long fissure. Over the next few weeks, small eruptions continued, dusting the surrounding areas with volcanic ash. Seismographs recorded hundreds of small earthquakes every day.</p><br>
<p>Scientists immediately installed monitoring equipment and analyzed the volcano for clues as to its previous eruptive history. Radiocarbon dating of charcoal found in old volcanic deposits revealed the last three major explosive eruption periods in recent millennia, about 5500, 3500 and 500 years ago. Geological mapping showed that much of the surrounding plains were formed by lahar flood deposits from previous eruptions.</p><br>
<p>Volcanic activity increased throughout May. Measurements of sulfur dioxide emissions showed a rapid increase from 500 t per day by May 13 to 5,000 t per day by May 28. This implied that there was a rising column of fresh magma beneath the volcano. After May 28, the amount of being emitted decreased substantially, raising fears that the degassing of the magma had been blocked somehow, leading to a pressure build-up in the magma chamber and a high likelihood of violent explosive eruptions.</p><br>
<p>The first magmatic eruptions occurred on June 3, and the first large blast on June 7 generated ash columns 7 km high. The Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS) immediately issued a warning indicating the possibility of a major eruption within two weeks.</p><br>
<h4>Evacuations</h4><br>
<p>Given all the signs that a very large eruption was imminent, PHIVOLCS – assisted by the USA Geological Survey (USGS) – worked to convince local inhabitants of the high severity of the threat. A false warning might have led to cynicism about any later warnings, but delaying a warning until an eruption began might lead to thousands of deaths, so the volcanologists were under some pressure to deliver a timely and accurate assessment of the volcanic risk.</p><br>
<p>Three successive evacuation zones were defined, the innermost containing everything within 10 kilometers of the volcano&#39;s summit, the second extending 10–20 kilometers from the summit, and the third extending from 20 - from the summit (Clark Air Base and Angeles City were in this zone). The 10 km and 10 – zones had a total population of about 40,000 inhabitants, while some more 331,000 inhabitants lived in the 20 – zone.</p><br>
<p>Five stages of volcanic alert were defined, from level 1 (low level seismic disturbances) up to level 5 (major eruption in progress). Daily alerts were issued stating the alert level and associated danger area, and the information was announced in major regional and national newspapers, on radio and television stations, by nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and directly to the endangered inhabitants.</p><br>
<p>Many of the Aetas who lived on the slopes of the volcano left their villages of their own volition when the first blasts began in April, gathering in a village about 12 km from the summit. They moved to increasingly distant settlements as the eruptions escalated, some Aetas moving up to nine times in the two months before the colossal eruption.</p><br>
<p>The first formal evacuations were ordered for the 10 km zone on April 7. Evacuation of the 10 – zone was ordered when a level 4 alert was issued on June 7. A level 5 alert triggered evacuation of the 20 – zone on June 13, and in all some 60,000 people had left the area within 30 km of the volcano before June 15. Most people temporarily relocated to Metro Manila, with some 30,000 using the Amoranto Velodrome in Quezon City as an evacuee camp.</p><br>
<h3>1991 eruption</h3><br>
<p>Approximately 800 people were killed and 10,000 people left homeless</p><br>
<p>Huge destruction left in surrounding areas</p><br>
<p>Release of 17 megatons of sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere, causing global cooling by 0.5 &deg;C between 1991–1993</p><br>
<p>The second-largest volcanic eruption of the 20th century, and by far the largest eruption to affect a densely populated area, occurred at Mount Pinatubo on June 15, 1991. The eruption produced high-speed avalanches of hot ash and gas, massive lahar floods and huge clouds of superheated volcanic material hundreds of kilometers across.</p><br>
<h4>Climactic eruption buildup</h4><br>
<p>In early June, tiltmeter measurements had shown that the volcano was gradually inflating, evidently due to fast-growing amounts of magma filling the reservoir beneath the summit. At the same time, seismic activity, previously concentrated at a depth of a few kilometers below a point about 5 km northwest of the summit, shifted to shallow depths just below the summit.</p><br>
<p>On June 7, the first magmatic eruptions took place with the formation of a lava dome at the summit of the volcano. The dome grew substantially over the next five days, reaching a maximum diameter of about 200 m and a height of 40 m.</p><br>
<p>Timely forecasts of an eruption by scientists from the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology and the USA Geological Survey enabled people living near the volcano to quickly evacuate to safer distances, saving at least 5,000 lives.</p><br>
<p>A small blast at 03:41 PST on June 12 marked the beginning of a new, more violent phase of the eruption.</p><br>
<p>A few hours later the same day, massive blasts lasting about half an hour generated big eruption columns, which quickly reached heights of over 19 km and which generated large pyroclastic surges extending up to 4 km from the summit in some river valleys. Fourteen hours later, a 15-minute blast hurled volcanic matter to heights of 24 km. Friction in the up-rushing ash column generated abundant lightning.</p><br>
<p>A third large eruption began at 08:41 on June 13, after an intense swarm of small earthquakes over the previous two hours. It lasted about five minutes, and the eruption column once again reached 24 kilometres. After three hours of quiet, seismic activity began, growing more and more intense over the next 24 hours, until a three-minute eruptive blast generated a 21 km high eruption column at 13:09 on June 14.</p><br>
<p>Tephra fall from these four large eruptions was extensive to the southwest of the volcano. Two hours after the last of these four explosions, a series of eruptions began which lasted for the next 24 hours, and which saw the production of much larger pyroclastic flows and surges which travelled several kilometres down river valleys on the flanks of the volcano.</p><br>
<p>Dacite was the dominant igneous rock making up the tephra in these eruptions and in the following climactic event. The most abundant phenocryst minerals were hornblende and plagioclase, but an unusual phenocryst mineral was also present – the calcium sulfate called anhydrite. The dacite magma was more oxidized than most magmas, and the sulfur-rich nature of the eruption was probably causally related to the redox state.</p><br>
<h4>The climactic eruption</h4><br>
<p>The final massive eruption of Mount Pinatubo began at 13:42 PST on June 15. It caused numerous major earthquakes due to the collapse of the summit and the creation of a caldera 2.5 km in diameter, reducing the peak from 1,745 m to 1,485 m.</p><br>
<p>All the seismographs close to Clark Air Base had been rendered completely inoperative by 14:30, mostly by super-massive pyroclastic surges. Intense atmospheric pressure variation was also recorded.</p><br>
<p>On the same day, Typhoon Yunya, locally named Diding, struck the island, with its center passing about 75 km north of the volcano. The typhoon rains mostly obscured the eruption, but measurements showed that ash was ejected to 34 km high by the most violent phase of the eruption, which lasted about three hours. Pyroclastic surges poured from the summit, reaching as far as 16 km away from their origin point. Typhoon rains mixed with the ash deposits caused a messy rain of mud and massive lahars.</p><br>
<p>The volcanic column from the crater covered an area of some 125,000 km&sup2, bringing total darkness to much of Central Luzon. Almost all of the island received some wet ash fall, which formed a heavy, rain-saturated snow-like blanket. Tephra fell over most of the South China Sea and ash falls were recorded as far away as Vietnam, Cambodia, Singapore, Malaysia and Indonesia.</p><br>
<p>Twelve days after the first magmatic eruptions of June 3, on June 15, 1991, by about 22:30, and about nine hours after the onset of the most recent climactic phase, atmospheric pressure waves had decreased to the pre-eruption levels. No seismic records were available at this time, but volcanologists believe 22:30 PST marked the end of the climactic eruption.</p><br>
<p>Vast quantities of minerals and metals were brought to the surface. Overall, introduced to the surface environment was an estimated 800,000 t of zinc, 600,000 t of copper, 550,000 t of chromium, 300,000 t of nickel, and massive amounts of toxic heavy metals such as 100,000 t of lead, 10,000 t of arsenic, 1,000 t of cadmium, and 800 t of mercury.</p><br>
<h4>The eruption effects on aircraft</h4><br>
<p>At least 16 commercial aircraft made damaging in-flight encounters with the ash cloud ejected by the June 15 eruption, as did other aircraft on the ground. The encounters caused loss of power to one engine on each of two aircraft. 10 engines were damaged and replaced, including all three engines of one DC-10. Longer term damage to aircraft and engines was reported, including accumulation of sulphate deposits on engines. The eruption also irreparably damaged the Philippine Air Force&#39;s recently retired fleet of Vought F-8s, as these were in open storage at Basa Air Base at the time.</p><br>
<h3>Aftermath of the 1991 eruption</h3><br>
<h4>Explosivity of the eruption</h4><br>
<p>The June 15 eruption had a volcanic explosivity index (VEI) of 6, and came some 450–500 years after the volcano&#39;s last known eruptive activity. The eruption ejected about 10 km3 of material, making it the largest eruption since that of Novarupta in 1912 and some ten times larger than the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens. Ejected material such as tephra fallout and pyroclastic flow deposits are much less dense than magma, and the volume of ejected material was equivalent to about 4 km3 of unerupted material.</p><br>
<p>The former summit of the volcano was obliterated and replaced by a caldera 2.5 km wide. The highest point on the caldera rim now stood 1,485 m above sea level, some 260 m lower than the pre-eruption summit.</p><br>
<h4>Death toll</h4><br>
<p>A reported 847 people were killed by the eruption, mostly by roofs collapsing under the severe weight of accumulated volcanic matter, a hazard amplified by the simultaneous arrival of Typhoon Yunya.</p><br>
<p>The evacuation in the days before the eruption certainly saved tens of thousands of lives, and has been hailed as a great success for volcanology and eruption prediction.</p><br>
<p>After the eruption, about 500,000 people continue to live within 40 km of the volcano, with population centers including the 150,000 in Angeles City and 30,000 at Clark Freeport Zone.</p><br>
<h4>Effects on agriculture</h4><br>
<p>Many reforestation projects were destroyed in the eruption, with a total area of 150 km&sup2; valued at 125 million pesos destroyed. Agriculture was heavily disrupted, with 800 km&sup2; of rice-growing farmland destroyed, and almost 800,000 head of livestock and poultry killed, destroying the livelihoods of thousands of farmers. The cost to agriculture of eruption effects was estimated to be 1.5 billion pesos.</p><br>
<p>Many farmers near Pinatubo began growing crops such as peanuts, cassava and sweet potatoes, which are quick-ripening and could be harvested before the threat of lahar floods during the late summer rainy season.</p><br>
<h4>Local economic and social effects</h4><br>
<p>In total, 364 communities and 2.1 million people were affected by the eruption, with livelihoods and houses being damaged and destroyed. More than 8,000 houses were completely destroyed, and a further 73,000 were damaged. In addition to the severe damage sustained by these communities, roads and communications were damaged or destroyed by pyroclastic surges and lahar floods throughout the areas surrounding the volcano. Total losses in 1991 and 1992 alone were estimated at 10.6 and 1.2 billion pesos respectively, including damage to public infrastructure estimated at 3.8 billion pesos (c. US$92,000,000). Education for thousands of children was seriously disrupted by the destruction of schools in the eruption.</p><br>
<p>The eruption of Pinatubo severely hampered the economic development of the surrounding areas. The gross regional domestic product of the Pinatubo area accounted for about 10% of the total Philippine gross domestic product. The GRDP had been growing at 5% annually before the eruption, but fell by more than 3% from 1990 to 1991. In 1991, damage to crops and property was estimated at $374 million, to which continuing lahar floods added a further $69 million in 1992. 42 percent of the cropland around the volcano was affected by more lahar floods, dealing a severe blow to the agricultural economy in the region.</p><br>
<h4>Lahars</h4><br>
<p>Since the eruption, each heavy rain has brought massive lahars from the volcano, displacing thousands of people and inflicting extensive damage to buildings and infrastructure costing billions to repair. A large supply of funds were spent in constructing dikes and dams to control the post-eruption lahar flows.</p><br>
<p>Several important river systems stem from Mount Pinatubo, the major rivers being the Abacan, Tarlac, Pasig-Potrero, Sta. Lucia, Bucao, Santo Tomas, Maloma, Tanguay, Ashley and Kileng rivers. Before the eruption, these river systems were important ecosystems, but the eruption filled many valleys with deep pyroclastic deposits. Since 1991, the rivers have been clogged with sediment, and the valleys have seen frequent lahars which continued for years after the eruption. Studies show that the river systems will take decades to recover from the June 1991 eruption.</p><br>
<p>On September 3, 1995, a lahar buried San Guillermo Parish Church to half its 12-meter height.</p><br>
<h4>Military impact</h4><br>
<p>The United States Air Force initiated a massive airlift effort to evacuate American service members and their families from the two affected bases during and immediately following the eruption, named Operation Fiery Vigil. Most personnel were initially relocated to Guam, Okinawa and Hawaii, although some returned to the continental United States. Clark Air Base was ultimately abandoned by the United States military, and Subic Bay reverted to Philippine control the next year following the breakdown of lease negotiations.</p><br>
<h4>Global environmental effects</h4><br>
<p>The powerful eruption of such an enormous volume of lava and ash injected significant quantities of aerosols and dust into the stratosphere. Sulfur dioxide oxidized in the atmosphere to produce a haze of sulfuric acid droplets, which gradually spread throughout the stratosphere over the year following the eruption. The injection of aerosols into the stratosphere is thought to have been the largest since the eruption of Krakatoa in 1883, with a total mass of of about 17,000,000 t being injected – the largest volume ever recorded by modern instruments (see chart and figure).</p><br>
<p>This very large stratospheric injection resulted in a reduction in the normal amount of sunlight reaching the Earth&#39;s surface by roughly 10% (see figure). This led to a decrease in northern hemisphere average temperatures of 0.5 - and a global fall of about 0.4 &deg;C. At the same time, the temperature in the stratosphere rose to several degrees higher than normal, due to absorption of radiation by the aerosol. The stratospheric cloud from the eruption persisted in the atmosphere for three years after the eruption. While not directly responsible, the eruption may have played a part in the formation of the 1993 Storm of the Century.</p><br>
<p>The eruption had a significant effect on ozone levels in the atmosphere, causing a large increase in the destruction rate of ozone. Ozone levels at middle latitudes reached their lowest recorded levels, while in the southern hemisphere winter of 1992, the ozone hole over Antarctica reached its largest ever size until then, with the fastest recorded ozone depletion rates. The eruption of Mount Hudson in Chile in August 1991 also contributed to southern hemisphere ozone destruction, with measurements showing a sharp decrease in ozone levels at the tropopause when the aerosol clouds from Pinatubo and Hudson arrived.</p><br>
<h4>Impact on the indigenous people of Pinatubo</h4><br>
<p>The Aeta people were the hardest hit by the eruption. After the areas surrounding the volcano were declared safe, many Aetas returned to their old villages only to find them destroyed by pyroclastic and lahar deposits. Some were able to return to their former way of life, but most moved instead to government-organized resettlement areas. Conditions on these were poor, with each family receiving only small plots of land not ideal for growing crops. Many Aeta found casual labor working for lowland farmers, and overall Aeta society became much more fragmented, and reliant on and integrated with lowland culture.</p><br>
<h4>Aftermath of the eruptions in pictures</h4><br>
<p>DC-10-30 resting on its tail due to Pinatubo ashfall.jpgA McDonnell-Douglas DC-10 owned by World Airways rests on its tail due to heavy ashfall deposited by the eruption at Cubi Point Naval Air Station</p><br>
<h2>Humanitarian aid</h2><br>
<p>Humanitarian aid received due to the eruption is as follows:</p><br>
<h3>Local</h3><br>
<h4>Government</h4><br>
<p>The government implemented several rehabilitative and reconstructive programs. Projects that will help deal with the aftermath brought about by lahar were also implemented. Among these is the construction of mega dikes. Moreover, to hasten the implementation of the basic services for the afflicted, private sectors, including the NGOs, took part in offering relief. They provided support and coordinated on the services that were deemed lacking from the side of the government.</p><br>
<p>1. Resettlement</p><br>
<p>2. Livelihood programs focused on agriculture and industry (quick-generating income opportunities to affected families)</p><br>
<p>3. Basic social services</p><br>
<p>4. Infrastructure rehabilitation and reconstruction</p><br>
<h4>Asian Disaster Reduction Center</h4><br>
<p>The Asian Disaster Reduction Center was founded in Kobe, Hyogo prefecture, in 1998, with a mission to improve disaster resilience of its fifty member countries, to build safe communities, and to create a society where there is an achievable sustainable development. The Center works to build and to establish networks among countries through many programs such as personnel exchanges in this field. The Center addresses this issue from a global perspective in cooperation with various UN agencies and international organizations including the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR), the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP), the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), and the World Health Organization Regional Office for the Western Pacific (WHO/WPRO). The Asian Disaster Reduction Center focuses mainly on the following forms of aid:</p><br>
<h4>=Resettlement=</h4><br>
<p>After the eruption, many of the homes were destroyed and many of the areas affected by lahar were deemed uninhabitable. There was need to resettle the people particularly the Aetas and lowlanders. Resettlement for these two need to take into consideration the factors of their socio-cultural and socioeconomic differences.</p><br>
<h4>=Livelihood=</h4><br>
<p>Faced with the destruction of many of the farmlands and the displacement of farmers and other workers the government had to search for a long term solution to address the issue. Agricultural based industries were also greatly affected. Closure of Clark Air base also raised an issue of finding short term livelihoods and the need to use the base lands to cushion the repercussions of the worker’s displacement.</p><br>
<h4>=Social services=</h4><br>
<p>The destruction brought about by the incident pressured social service sectors to continue their efforts in providing assistance in terms of health, social welfare and education. The services offered are not limited to the victims within the evacuation centers but also offered to the others affected. While the event happened during the opening of a school year, classes were needed to be push back as school facilities were destroyed. Providing resettlement for the evacuees was also a major concern. Social services was also provided in the prospective resettlement areas to prepare the victims when settling down.</p><br>
<h4>=Infrastructure=</h4><br>
<p>Destruction of many infrastructures was mostly due to the wet ash after the explosion. The region’s roads, bridges, public buildings, facilities, communication and structures for river and flood control were some of the great concerns of the government. A need to establish measures for the flash floods and the threat caused by lahar also became an imperative demand to the government.</p><br>
<h4>=Land use and environmental management=</h4><br>
<p>The aftereffects of the eruption damaged not only man-made structures but also farmlands, forestlands and watershed. River systems and overall environment of the affected region are also heavily damaged by the heavy lahar flow. To address this careful replanning of the land area region is necessary.</p><br>
<h4>=Science and technology=</h4><br>
<p>This event showed the need to engage in scientific studies to reassess the current policies and knowledge on areas with risk of eruption. Studies should also be allocated on possible application for the ash fall for industrial and commercial purposes. The significance of this concern affects both the government and private sectors.</p><br>
<h3>International</h3><br>
<p>Even before the Philippine government officially appealed for international assistance, the Office of USA Foreign Disaster Assistance (USAID/OFDA) shipped shelter material for victims of the floods and lahars in late July 1992. In the following month, they provided $375 000 to be used for relief and rehabilitation projects. The Department of Social Welfare and Development had claimed during an informal donors’ meeting with representatives from mostly international agencies who compose the donor community that the national government was still well-equipped and had sufficient resources to aid the victims. The UN-Disaster Management Team (DMT) and the United Nations’ Department of Humanitarian Affairs/United Nations Disaster Relief Organization (DHA/UNDRO) continued cooperating with the national government to monitor the situation and formulate ideas for further assistance.</p><br>
<p>It was not until the then-President Fidel V. Ramos had declared the affected provinces and areas to be in a state of emergency that the national government officially requested for international assistance and for aid in projects for rehabilitation and relief provisions in the aforementioned areas. In response to this, the DHA/UNDRO reached out to the international community to respond to the appeal, and continued their operations, coordinating with the government.</p><br>
<p>Among the countries that extended humanitarian relief assistance are United States, Canada, UK, Germany, Japan, China, Singapore, Saudi Arabia, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Spain, New Zealand, Finland, France, Italy, Denmark, Belgium, Australia, India, South Korea, Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, Malta, and Myanmar. International organizations which includes WHO, UNDP, UNICEF, UNDRO, and WFP also offered assistance. Relief assistance from these organizations and countries were in the form of either cash donation or relief items such as food packs, medicines, and shelter materials.</p><br>
<h4>United Nations</h4><br>
<p>Contributions made by the different systems of the United Nations (UN) are as follows:</p><br>
<p>Contributions made by participating countries in the UN are as follows:</p><br>
<h4>Others</h4><br>
<p>Some specific projects under the auspices of the DPWH, which were made possible by foreign assistance, included:</p><br>
<p>ADB-funded Mt. Pinatubo Damage Rehabilitation Project</p><br>
<p>German Bank for Reconstruction-funded Mt. Pinatubo Emergency Aide Project</p><br>
<p>Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA)-funded Mt. Pinatubo Relief and Rehab Project</p><br>
<p>USAID-funded United States Army Corps of Engineers&#39; Mt. Pinatubo recovery action</p><br>
<p>Dutch-funded dredging of the Pasac- Guagua-San Fernando Waterway</p><br>
<p>Overseas Economic Cooperation Fund (OECF)-funded Pinatubo Hazard Urgent Mitigation Project</p><br>
<p>German Centrum for International Migration (CIM)-funded technical assistance for Mount Pinatubo Emergency-PMO</p><br>
<p>JICA-funded grant aid for water supply in Mt. Pinatubo resettlement areas and study on flood and mudflow control for Sacobia Bamban/Abacan Rivers</p><br>
<p>IBRD-funded technical assistance for Mt. Pinatubo and Rehabilitation Works</p><br>
<p>Swiss Disaster Relief-funded technical assistance for Mt. Pinatubo Rehabilitation</p><br>
<p>JBIC Yen Loan Package-funded Pinatubo hazard Urgent Mitigation Project</p><br>
<h2>Activity since 1991</h2><br>
<p>Following the climactic eruption of June 15, 1991, activity at the volcano continued at a much lower level, with continuous ash eruptions lasting until August 1991 and episodic eruptions continuing for another month. Activity then remained low until July 1992 when a new lava dome started growing in the caldera. Volcanologists suspected that further violent eruptions could be possible, and some areas were evacuated. However, the eruption was only minor, and since that episode, the volcano has been quiet.</p><br>
<h3>Lake Pinatubo</h3><br>
<p>The 1991 caldera afterwards filled with water from annual monsoon rains and a crater lake, Lake Pinatubo, was formed. In 1992, a growing lava dome formed an island, which was eventually submerged by the lake. Initially, the lake was hot and highly acidic, with a minimum pH of 2 and a temperature of about 40 &deg;C. Subsequent rainfall cooled and diluted the lake, lowering the temperature to 26 &deg;C and raising the pH to 5.5 by 2003.</p><br>
<p>The lake deepened by about 1 m per month on average, eventually submerging the lava dome, until September 2001, when fears that the walls of the crater might be unstable prompted the Philippine government to order a controlled draining of the lake. An estimated 9,000 people were once again evacuated from surrounding areas in case a large flood was accidentally triggered. Workers cut a 5 m notch in the crater rim and drained about a quarter of the lake&#39;s volume.</p><br>
<h3>Recent activity</h3><br>
<p>On July 10, 2002, the west wall of the crater collapsed, slowly releasing approximately 160 million cubic meters of water and sediments into the Maraunot River in Botolan, Zambales.</p><br>
<p>On July 26, 2011, a 5.9 magnitude earthquake struck close to Pinatubo; however, no major damages or casualties were reported.</p><br>
<h2>Cultural history</h2><br>
<p>The word pinatubo could mean "fertile place where one can make crops grow", or could mean "made to grow", in Sambal and Tagalog, which may suggest a knowledge of its previous eruption in about 1500 AD. There is a local oral tradition suggestive of a folk memory of earlier large eruptions. An ancient legend tells of Bacobaco, a terrible spirit of the sea, who could metamorphose into a huge turtle and throw fire from his mouth. In the legend, when being chased by the spirit hunters, Bacobaco flees to the mountain and digs a great hole in its summit showering the surrounding land with rock, mud, dust and fire for three days; howling so loudly that the earth shakes.</p><br>
<h3>History among Aetas</h3><br>
<p>Aeta elders tell many stories about the history of the mountain, the best known being that it was once a Batung Mabye (Kapampangan language for "living stone"). It was said to have been planted on a kingdom by a displeased sorcerer but relocated by a hero. The mountain was soon turned into the abode of Apo Namalyari ("The lord of happenings/events"), the pagan deity of the Sambal, Aetas and Kapampangans living on the Zambales range.</p><br>
<p>It was said to comprise the whole mountain range until Sinukuan of Mount Arayat (the god of the Kapampangans) became a strong rival of Namalyari. Their fight, which took place over the center plains, shattered the mountain into smaller bodies and Mount Arayat lost its center peak. Other versions have it that Pinatubos peak shattered because of Namalyaris immense fury in an attempt to teach humans the meaning of fear and show how misdeeds will be punished.</p><br>
<p>According to the native elders, Apo Namalyari induced the June 1991 eruption because of displeasure toward illegal loggers and Philippine National Oil Company executives who performed deep exploratory drilling and well testing on the volcano looking for geothermal heat from 1988 to 1990. Discouraging results from the wells forced the abandonment of the prospect 13 months before the April 2, 1991 explosions.</p><br>
<h2>Aetas granted ownership of Pinatubo</h2><br>
<p>After being driven away by the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, in May 2009 some 454 Aeta families in Pampanga were given the first clean ancestral land ownership on Mount Pinatubo with the Certificate of Ancestral Domain Title (CADT) by the National Commission on Indigenous Peoples (NCIP), the government agency that deals with issues concerning indigenous people of the Philippines. The approved and declared net land area of 7,440.1 hectare covers the barangays of Mawakat and Nabuklod in Floridablanca, Pampanga, plus a portion of San Marcelino, Zambales, and a portion of Barangay Batiawan in Subic, Zambales.</p><br>
<p>On January 14, 2010, some 7,000 Aeta families from Zambales were officially granted the Certificate of Ancestral Domain Title (CADT) covering the Zambales side of Pinatubo which includes the summit and Lake Pinatubo, officially becoming their lutan tua (ancestral land). The ancestral domain title covers 15,984 hectare and includes the villages of Burgos, Villar, Moraza and Belbel in Botolan and portions of the towns of Cabangan, San Felipe and San Marcelino.</p><br>
<p>Having the land title will protect them from others — including foreigners — exploiting their land without compensation and consent to the indigenous tribes. In the past, the Aetas had to contend with mining companies, loggers, and recently, tourist companies who earn from Mount Pinatubo but do not compensate the local tribes.</p><br>
<p>Ancestral domain titles are awarded to a certain community or indigenous group who have occupied or possessed the land continuously in accordance with their customs and traditions since time immemorial. They have the legal right to collectively possess and to enjoy the land and its natural resources to the exclusion of others.</p><br>
<h2>Pinatubo in popular culture</h2><br>
<p>Long before Mt. Pinatubo became famous for its cataclysmic eruption, Philippine President Ramon Magsaysay, a native of Zambales, named his C-47 presidential plane "Mt. Pinatubo". The plane crashed in Mount Manunggal in Cebu province in 1957, killing the President and 24 others on board.</p><br>
<h2>Hiking Pinatubo</h2><br>
<p>The caldera formed and Lake Pinatubo has since become a tourist attraction with the preferred route through Barangay Santa Juliana in Capas, Tarlac.</p><br>
<p>Mount McLoughlin is a steep-sided lava cone built on top of a stratovolcano, or composite volcano, in the Cascade Range of southern Oregon and within the Sky Lakes Wilderness. It is one of the volcanic peaks in the Cascade Volcanic Arc. The mountain is north of Mount Shasta, south of Crater Lake, and west of Upper Klamath Lake. It was named around 1838 after John McLoughlin, a Chief Factor for the Hudson&#39;s Bay Company.</p><br>
<p>Mount McLoughlin has been known by a number of different names over the years, including Mount Pitt (after the Pit River), Big Butte, M&#39;laiksini Yaina (Klamath Indians), Malsi (Takelma Indians), Mount Shasty (although this name was applied to Mount Shasta to the south by the 1841 Wilkes Expedition), and Snowy Butte.</p><br>
<p>The Pacific Crest Trail skirts the eastern and northern sides and also accesses the only trail to the summit. On a clear day, the Sky Lakes Wilderness, Crater Lake, the Rogue Valley, and Mount Shasta are visible from the summit.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Except for a short monograph written by Arthur B. Emmons in 1886, little was known about Mount McLoughlin&#39;s geology until the 1970s. Much of what is known today comes from LeRoy Maynard of the Center for Volcanology at the University of Oregon.</p><br>
<p>The 3 cumi</p><br>
<p>volcano went through three or four stages of development and stopped growing some time before the most recent period of glaciation about 25,000 years ago.</p><br>
<p>The first known stage of the volcanos growth was explosive and built a large cinder cone from a single vent that may have reached the unusual height of 3,000 ft and may account for one third of McLoughlins present interior. A steep-sided pre-existing shield volcano may exist within the cinder cone, thus explaining its extreme height. Some lava is associated with this stage but is confined to the lower parts of the cinder cone. A second cone-building stage was characterized by large andesite lava flows that poured out of a summit crater and in time buried the cinder cone. The third stage of development consisted of floods of blocky andesite lava erupting from below the summit and more fluid lavas erupting from basal fissures, mostly confined to the south slope. North Squaw Tip and South Squaw Tip on McLoughlin&#39;s west flank now mark the site of the two major blocky flow vents. There were two smaller vents as well. The entire third stage is thought to have happened in the Holocene period, after the last ice age, due to a general lack of weathering and fresh appearance of the solidified lava.</p><br>
<p>During the last ice age, a large ice cap buried most of the High Cascades, with Mount McLoughlin marking the southern terminus of this structure. The ice cap was 200 to 300 ft thick where it touched the mountain. A large ice-age glacier on the northeast side of the volcano severely eroded that part of the mountain, creating an asymmetrical cone. A cirque glacier occupied part of the depression until early in the 20th century. The volcano&#39;s crest is located south of the central vent, and its crater has long since been eroded away along with about 500 ft of its former height.</p><br>
<p>Antelope Valley is located in northern Los Angeles County, California and the southeast portion of Kern County, California, and constitutes the western tip of the Mojave Desert. It is situated between the Tehachapi and the San Gabriel Mountains. The valley was named for the pronghorns that roamed there until being all but eliminated by bad weather in the 1880s and subsequent hunting for fur. The principal cities in the Antelope Valley are Palmdale and Lancaster.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The Antelope Valley comprises the western tip of the Mojave Desert, opening up to the Victor Valley and the Great Basin to the east. Lying north of the San Gabriel Mountains and southeast of the Tehachapis, this desert ecosystem spans approximately 2,200 square miles. Precipitation in the surrounding mountain ranges contributes to groundwater recharge.</p><br>
<h2>Flora and fauna</h2><br>
<p>The Antelope Valley is home to a wide range of plants and animals. This includes hundreds of plants such as the California Juniper, Joshua tree, California Scrub Oak, Creosote, and wildflowers, notably the California poppy. Winter brings much-needed rain which slowly penetrates the area&#39;s dry ground, bringing up native grasses and wildflowers. Poppy season depends completely on the precipitation, but a good bloom can be killed off by the unusual weather in the late winter and early spring months.</p><br>
<p>The Antelope Valley gets its name from its history of pronghorn grazing in large numbers. In 1882-85, the valley lost 30,000 head of antelope, almost half of the species for which it was named. Unusually heavy snows in both the mountains and the valley floor drove the antelope toward their normal feeding grounds in the eastern part of the valley. Since they would not cross the railroad tracks, many of them starved to death. The remainder of these pronghorn were hunted for their fur by settlers. Once abundant, they either died off or migrated into the Central Valley. A drought in the early 1900s caused a scarcity in bunch grass, their main food source. Now the sighting of a pronghorn is rare, although there are still a small number in the western portion of the valley.</p><br>
<h3>Water issues</h3><br>
<p>Human water use in the Antelope Valley depends mainly on pumping of groundwater from the valley&#39;s aquifers and on importing additional water from the California Aqueduct. Long-term groundwater pumping has lowered the water table, thereby increasing pumping lifts, reducing well efficiency, and causing land subsidence.</p><br>
<p>While aqueducts supply additional water that meets increasing human demand for agricultural, industrial, and domestic uses, diversion of water from the Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta in northern California has caused and causes adverse environmental and social effects in the delta: "Over decades, competing uses for water supply and habitat have jeopardized the Delta’s ability to meet either need. All stakeholders agree the estuary is in trouble and requires long-term solutions to ensure reliable, quality water supplies and a healthy ecosystem."</p><br>
<p>The Antelope Valley&#39;s population growth and development place considerable stress on the local and regional water systems. According to David Leighton of the United States Geological Survey (USGS): "A deliberate management effort will be required to meet future water demand in the Antelope Valley without incurring significant economic and environmental costs associated with overuse of the ground-water resource."</p><br>
<h2>Human history</h2><br>
<p>The first peoples of the Antelope Valley include the Kawaiisu, Kitanemuk, Serrano, and Tataviam. Europeans first entered in the 1770s during the colonization of North America. Father Francisco Garces, a Spanish Franciscan friar, is believed to have traveled the west end of the valley in 1776. The Spanish established El Camino Viejo through the western part of the valley between Los Angeles and the missions of the San Francisco Bay in the 1780s. By 1808, the Spanish had moved the native people out of the valley and into missions.</p><br>
<p>Jedediah Smith came through in 1827, and John C. Fremont made a scientific observation of the valley in 1844. After Fremont&#39;s visit the 49ers crossed the valley via the Old Tejon Pass into the San Joaquin Valley on their way to the gold fields. Later, a better wagon road, the Stockton – Los Angeles Road route to Tejon Pass, followed in 1854. Stagecoach lines across the southern foothills came through the valley along this wagon road, and were the preferred method for travelers before the coming of the Southern Pacific Railroad in 1876. The rail service linking the valley to the Central Valley and Los Angeles started its first large influx of white settlers, and farms and towns soon sprouted on the valley floor.</p><br>
<p>The aircraft (now called aerospace) industry took hold in the valley at Plant 42 in 1952. Edwards AFB, then called Muroc Army Air Field, was established in 1933.</p><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<p>In recent decades the valley has become a bedroom community to the Greater Los Angeles area. Major housing tract development and population growth took off beginning in 1983, which has increased the population of Palmdale around 12 times its former size as of 2006. Neighboring Lancaster has increased its population since the early 1980s to around three times its former level. Major retail has followed the population influx, centered on Palmdale&#39;s Antelope Valley Mall. The Antelope Valley is home to over 475,000 people.</p><br>
<p>Non-Hispanic whites make up approximately 48% of the population of the Antelope Valley and form a majority or plurality in most of its cities and towns. Hispanics are the next largest group, followed by African Americans and Asian Americans.</p><br>
<p>Some long-term residents living far out in the desert have been cited by Los Angeles County&#39;s Nuisance Abatement Teams for code violations, forcing them to make improvements or move. One of the properties is a church building which was used as a filming location for Kill Bill. The code enforcers have arrived on some of their visits in SWAT team formats.</p><br>
<h2>Military base</h2><br>
<p>Edwards Air Force Base lies east of Rosamond, 37 miles (60 km) northeast of Palmdale. Edwards AFB&#39;s dry lakebeds are the lowest geographic elevation in the valley.</p><br>
<p>Significant amounts of USA military flight testing are performed there, and it has been the site of many important aeronautical accomplishments, including the first flight to break the sound barrier, accomplished by Chuck Yeager.</p><br>
<p>NASA space shuttles originally landed at Edwards because the lake beds offer a vast landing area. Although NASA later built a huge landing strip at Kennedy Space Center, Edwards was retained as the backup in case of bad weather at Cape Canaveral.</p><br>
<p>NASA Neil A. Armstrong Flight Research Center is a tenant organization at Edwards AFB. The Center is best known for the X-15 experimental rocket ship program. It has been the home of NASA&#39;s high-performance aircraft research since it was founded for the X-1 program. The Space Shuttle Orbiter was serviced there when it landed at Edwards.</p><br>
<h2>Industry</h2><br>
<h3>Aerospace</h3><br>
<p>U. S. Air Force Plant 42 in northeast Palmdale is home to Lockheed Martin, Boeing, Northrop Grumman, and BAE Systems, among other aerospace-related companies. Notable projects assembled and/or designed there include the Space Shuttle orbiters, B-1 Lancer bomber, B-2 Spirit bomber, F-117 Nighthawk fighter, F-35 Joint Strike Fighter, and the Lockheed L-1011 Tristar, a passenger jet aircraft.</p><br>
<p>This region also houses the newly dedicated Mojave Air & Space Port. The spaceport is famous as the base of operations for Scaled Composites, the company that designed SpaceShipOne and won the X-Prize.</p><br>
<p>Much of the work done at these facilities is performed in coordination with Edwards Air Force Base and the NASA Dryden Flight Research Center (see above), from the creation and testing of proof-of-concept X-planes, to Space Shuttle operations, to the manufacturing and integration and testing of new military aviation equipment.</p><br>
<h3>Agriculture</h3><br>
<p>The valley&#39;s first main industry as a part of the United States was agriculture. Historically known regionally for its extensive alfalfa fields and fruit crops, farmers now are growing a wider variety of crops, such as carrots, onions, lettuce, and potatoes. As housing tracts continue to build in the middle of the valley, the farm operations are now found farther to the west and east sides than in previous decades.</p><br>
<h3>Mining</h3><br>
<p>The world&#39;s largest borax open-pit mine is located near Boron.</p><br>
<h3>Manufacturing</h3><br>
<p>USA Pole Company Inc.</p><br>
<p>Senior Systems Technology</p><br>
<p>Delta Scientific</p><br>
<p>Lance Camper Manufacturing Corporation</p><br>
<p>Harvest Farms Inc.</p><br>
<h2>Education</h2><br>
<h3>Colleges and universities</h3><br>
<p>University of Antelope Valley, INC. formerly known as Antelope Valley Medical College, INC. is a private, for-profit, incorporated company/corporation. The corporation is owned and operated by Lancaster city councilwoman, Sandra Johnson. The facility was featured on a local news report titled "University of Antelope Valley pays employers for jobs", regarding payouts to local businesses that would hire or place graduated students for $2,000. UAV, INC., must place at least 65 percent of its graduates in jobs, or lose accreditation.</p><br>
<p>The Antelope Valley Community College District is the local public, regionally accredited, college system that covers the area with a primary service area of 1,945 square miles covering portions of Los Angeles and Kern counties. Instruction is offered at multiple sites, including Palmdale and Lancaster, as well as through online and instructional television courses. It has 2 campuses. The main one, Antelope Valley College is a comprehensive community college located in Lancaster. The college offers Associate in Arts/Associate in Science (two-year) degrees in 67 fields, as well as certificate programs in 56 vocational areas. It also hosts a satellite location of California State University, Bakersfield-Antelope Valley, where students can obtain bachelors and masters degrees. Enrollment for the 2007-2008 academic year exceeds 14,000. The second campus is a satellite campus in Palmdale with an enrollment of just over 500.</p><br>
<p>University of Phoenix has a satellite campus in Lancaster.</p><br>
<p>University of La Verne has a satellite campus in Palmdale.</p><br>
<p>DeVry University and its Keller Graduate School of Management has a satellite campus in Palmdale.</p><br>
<p>Chapman University has a satellite campus in Palmdale.</p><br>
<p>The AERO Institute at the Palmdale Institute of Technology is a facility in Palmdale at the Civic Center. It is operated by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), and the City of Palmdale, and distance learning through a number of universities is available including Purdue, USC, University of San Diego, Pepperdine University, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, Caltech and Cal Poly Pomona. This specialized school offers graduate and undergraduate education in aerospace science, engineering, and technical skills.</p><br>
<p>West Coast Baptist College in Lancaster, is an unaccredited Independent Fundamental Baptist Bible college offering graduate and undergraduate degrees in Pastoral studies, evangelism, missions, church ministries, music, Christian education, youth ministry, and secretarial studies. West Coast opened in 1995, and now has about 1,000 students.</p><br>
<p>The Lancaster University Center in Lancaster provides local students education in engineering and technology from California State University, Long Beach. The $3.5 million reconstruction of Challenger Hall, located at the old Antelope Valley Fairgrounds, gave the new campus 13 classrooms, two of which are high tech distance learning rooms and two of which are lab classrooms, as well as office space. The school was created through partnerships with California State University, Bakersfield, California State University, Fresno, and local aerospace companies. They offer bachelor of science degrees in mechanical and electrical engineering.</p><br>
<p>Career Care Institute, Inc. in Lancaster, is an accredited vocational school offering training in allied health field programs such as vocational nursing, medical assisting, medical billing, and limited permit x-ray technician. The school was founded in 1998, by Edmund Carrasco, who serves as the Chief Executive Officer. Career Care Institute has experienced steady growth by opening its second campus in the City of Ventura in 2004, and its third campus in the Moreno Valley Mall in 2007. The school maintains the best passage rates on the National Council Licensure Examination for Practical Nurses in the Antelope Valley.</p><br>
<h3>High schools</h3><br>
<p>The Antelope Valley Union High School District is the primary public school district covering the vast majority of high school education in the metropolitan Palmdale and Lancaster area. The district has 25,000 students in 8 regular high schools in Palmdale and Lancaster, a continuation school in each city, a trade school in Palmdale, and a specialized early college education school on the Lancaster Antelope Valley College campus. These are:</p><br>
<p>Antelope Valley High School - Lancaster</p><br>
<p>Antelope Valley Regional Occupational Program (AV ROP) - Palmdale</p><br>
<p>Desert Winds High School - Lancaster</p><br>
<p>Eastside High School - Lancaster</p><br>
<p>Highland High School - Palmdale</p><br>
<p>Lancaster High School - Lancaster</p><br>
<p>Littlerock High School - Littlerock, California</p><br>
<p>Palmdale High School - Palmdale</p><br>
<p>Pete Knight High School - Palmdale</p><br>
<p>Quartz Hill High School - Quartz Hill</p><br>
<p>R. Rex Parris Continuation High School - Palmdale</p><br>
<p>SOAR High School - Lancaster</p><br>
<p>The Southern Kern Unified School District provides all public school education in Rosamond and nearby Willow Springs.</p><br>
<p>The Muroc Joint Unified School District provides all public school education for Edwards Air Force Base, and the northern Antelope Valley communities of North Edwards, and Boron.</p><br>
<p>The Mojave Unified School District provides all public school education in the northern Antelope Valley communities of Mojave and California City.</p><br>
<p>There are also several private and home school high schools in the area, most notably:</p><br>
<p>Abraham Lincoln High School - Rosamond</p><br>
<p>Paraclete High School</p><br>
<p>Bethel Christian High School</p><br>
<p>Antelope Valley Christian School - Lancaster</p><br>
<p>Desert Christian High School</p><br>
<p>Pearblossom High School</p><br>
<p>Desert Sands Charter Schools - Lancaster</p><br>
<p>Desert Sands Charter Schools - Palmdale</p><br>
<p>Opportunities for Learning Charter Schools - Lancaster</p><br>
<p>Opportunities for Learning Charter Schools - Palmdale</p><br>
<p>The Palmdale Aerospace Academy</p><br>
<h3>School districts</h3><br>
<p>The Palmdale School District is the area&#39;s largest school district, with an enrollment of over 28,000 in 29 schools. The district covers the central portion of the city.</p><br>
<p>The Lancaster School District is the area&#39;s third largest school district after Palmdale and the A.V. High School District. This school district covers most of central and part of eastern Lancaster with 15,000 students in 19 schools.</p><br>
<p>The Westside Union School District covers western Palmdale and Lancaster and their immediate suburbs including Quartz Hill, Del Sur, Leona Valley, and Antelope Acres. It has over 8,250 students in 11 schools.</p><br>
<p>The Eastside Union School District covers eastern Lancaster with 3,500 students in 4 schools.</p><br>
<p>The Keppel Union School District covers eastern Palmdale and its immediate suburbs, including the eastern Antelope Valley communities of Lake Los Angeles, Pearblossom, Littlerock, Sun Village, Llano, and Valyermo. It has 6 schools with over 3,000 students.</p><br>
<p>The Southern Kern Unified School District provides all public school education in Rosamond and nearby Willow Springs.</p><br>
<p>The Muroc Joint Unified School District provides all public school education for Edwards Air Force Base, and the northern Antelope Valley communities of North Edwards, and Boron.</p><br>
<p>The Mojave Unified School District provides all public school education in the northern Antelope Valley communities of Mojave and California City.</p><br>
<h2>Culture</h2><br>
<p>The Antelope Valley Symphony Orchestra is a professional ensemble that performs four concerts each year at the Lancaster Performing Arts Center. It is an auxiliary of Antelope Valley College, and performs regularly with the Antelope Valley College Civic Orchestra.</p><br>
<h3>In popular culture</h3><br>
<p>Antelope Valley Indian Museum State Historic Park has been featured in films such as The Magnificent Seven Ride! (1972) and The Stone Killer (1973). Mackenna&#39;s Gold (1964) was also partly filmed in Antelope Valley.</p><br>
<h2>Parks</h2><br>
<p>Antelope Valley California Poppy Reserve, home to California&#39;s state flower</p><br>
<p>Arthur B. Ripley Desert Woodland State Park</p><br>
<p>Antelope Valley Indian Museum State Historic Park</p><br>
<p>Saddleback Butte State Park</p><br>
<p>Devil&#39;s Punchbowl County Park</p><br>
<h2>Hospitals</h2><br>
<p>Major hospitals include:</p><br>
<p>Antelope Valley Hospital</p><br>
<p>Palmdale Regional Medical Center</p><br>
<p>The Antelope Valley was formerly served by a county hospital, High Desert Hospital, which was converted into an urgent care clinic in 2003 due to the county&#39;s budget problems. As a result, indigent patients with serious but non-life-threatening medical conditions must seek treatment at Olive View – UCLA Medical Center in Sylmar, which is over 50 mi away.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<h3>Major highways and roads</h3><br>
<p>Include:</p><br>
<p>Angeles Forest Highway, a key county road, connects Palmdale with Angeles Crest Highway as an alternate route to the Los Angeles basin.</p><br>
<p>The Antelope Valley Freeway (State Route 14)</p><br>
<p>State Route 18 (connects SR 138 east of Palmdale to Victor Valley and USARoute 395) There is currently a proposal to turn this into a freeway.</p><br>
<p>State Route 138 (of which Pearblossom Highway comprises the eastern leg)</p><br>
<p>State Route 58 (freeway status now that the new Mojave bypass has been completed)</p><br>
<p>USA Route 395 (which technically lies east of the Valley proper)</p><br>
<p>On the ridgeline of the San Gabriel Mountains, the Angeles Crest Highway (State Route 2) snakes 60 miles (100 km) through the Angeles National Forest to La Cañada Flintridge and the Greater Los Angeles metropolitan region.</p><br>
<h3>Rail</h3><br>
<p>Union Pacific serves the Antelope Valley with freight service on their route between Palmdale and Mojave, with continuing service to points south, southeast and north. BNSF Railway serves Mojave with freight service to/from the east, and to/from Richmond CA to the west.</p><br>
<p>Metrolink passenger rail service to the Los Angeles Basin and other parts of Southern California provides service to Antelope Valley commuters at its Lancaster, Palmdale, and Vincent Grade/Acton stations.</p><br>
<p>Amtrak passenger rail service has a commuter bus that stops at the Palmdale Transportation Center and the Lancaster Metrolink station, connecting Antelope Valley residents to the national rail network.</p><br>
<p>The California High Speed Rail authority has designated Palmdale as a stop on the future rail line between San Francisco and San Diego.</p><br>
<h3>Bus</h3><br>
<p>The Antelope Valley Transit Authority is the local city-bus system for metropolitan Palmdale and Lancaster. The service also operates a commuter bus network from its hubs at the Palmdale Transportation Center and the Lancaster Park & Ride to several locations in Los Angeles.</p><br>
<p>Greyhound Bus has stops at the Palmdale Transportation Center and the Lancaster Metrolink station.</p><br>
<h3>Airports</h3><br>
<p>Palmdale Regional Airport, co-sited with USAF Plant 42 is by far the largest and busiest airport in the valley and is owned by Los Angeles World Airports (LAWA), the Los Angeles city government entity which owns and operates LAX. Although mostly military flights occur at this airport, it also has an unused commercial terminal.</p><br>
<p>General William J. Fox Airfield in Lancaster is the valleys busiest general aviation airport. It is the fourth largest airport in the valley. Charter air service and helicopter rides are available. This airport also has the valleys only aviation school.</p><br>
<p>Inyokern Airport in Inyokern, near Ridgecrest, is a large general aviation airport with limited commercial airline service to Los Angeles International Airport, serving the northern Antelope Valley and Indian Wells Valley communities. Charter service is also available. It is the area&#39;s third largest airport.</p><br>
<p>Mojave Air & Space Port in Mojave is a large civil aviation center and the second largest airport in the valley. Voyager and SpaceShipOne were developed and flown from its location.</p><br>
<p>Mountain Valley Airport in Tehachapi is a gliderport, privately owned but open to the public, which offers glider training for civilian and military pilots</p><br>
<p>Tehachapi Municipal Airport in Tehachapi is a small general aviation airport.</p><br>
<p>Agua Dulce Airpark in Agua Dulce is a medium-sized general aviation airport.</p><br>
<p>Rosamond Skypark Airport in Rosamond is a small general aviation airport, privately owned and operated.</p><br>
<p>California City Municipal Airport in California City is a small general aviation airport.</p><br>
<p>Crystalaire Airport in Llano is a small airstrip principally dedicated to glider flights.</p><br>
<h2>Notable people</h2><br>
<p>Some people of note have spent time in the valley, including:</p><br>
<p>The 1990s R&B group All-4-One was from the AV.</p><br>
<p>Erik Audé, actor-stuntman turned professional poker player, went to Paraclete High School before transferring over to Bethel Christian.</p><br>
<p>Pancho Barnes, the aviator and friend to the USA Air Force&#39;s test pilots of what is now called Edwards Air Force Base, established the celebrated Happy Bottom Riding Club near Rogers Dry Lake in 1935, later living in Cantil and Boron.</p><br>
<p>Linda Blair, award-winning actress notable for her lead in the 1973 film The Exorcist, currently resides in Acton, where she leads the Linda Blair World Heart Foundation.</p><br>
<p>Spade Cooley was a Western swing musician, big band leader, actor, and television personality (Willow Springs).</p><br>
<p>Michael Deaver, former aide to Ronald Reagan, is a former Mojave resident.</p><br>
<p>R. Lee Ermey of Full Metal Jacket and Mail Call fame is a current Palmdale resident.</p><br>
<p>Joseph Foreman, more frequently known as Afroman, lives in Palmdale.</p><br>
<p>Daniel Fry, a contactee, attended Antelope Valley High School in Lancaster during the 1920s.</p><br>
<p>Judy Garland, then known in the valley as Frances Gumm. As a girl, she would sing in public to her Lancaster neighbors.</p><br>
<p>Tippi Hedren, who made her major motion picture debut in The Birds, is an Acton resident since at least 1981 (Acton not being in the valley proper, but nearby to the south).</p><br>
<p>Aldous Huxley drew writing inspiration from the solitude found at his Llano home. A little known childrens book, The Crows of Pearblossom, is set in the valley and is the only childrens book he is known to have written.</p><br>
<p>Home to members of the punk band Killradio.</p><br>
<p>Terence McKenna, noted writer, public speaker, philosopher, psychonaut, and ethnobotanist, graduated from Antelope Valley High School in 1965.</p><br>
<p>Burt Rutan and his brother Dick Rutan of Scaled Composites, the firm which produced SpaceShipOne and the Voyager aerospace vehicles, work out of Mojave Air & Space Port in Mojave.</p><br>
<p>Home to members of the punk band Slick Shoes.</p><br>
<p>Kathleen Soliah, who achieved notoriety as a member of the Symbionese Liberation Army in the 1970s and then as a fugitive living a quiet, middle-class life in Saint Paul, Minnesota, grew up in Desert View Highlands, graduating from Palmdale High School in 1965.</p><br>
<p>Don Van Vliet (Captain Beefheart) attended Antelope Valley High School in Lancaster, with Frank Zappa.</p><br>
<p>John Wayne, then known as Marion Morrison, was briefly a Lancaster schoolboy who was known not to tie up his horse properly when he left it by the street, as was the old time custom.</p><br>
<p>Chuck Yeager was an early USAF test pilot at Muroc Army Air Field, now Edwards Air Force Base, where he became the first to break the sound barrier on October 14, 1947.</p><br>
<p>Frank Zappa attended Antelope Valley High School in Lancaster, graduating in 1958. He met Don Van Vliet (Captain Beefheart) there, a fellow student.</p><br>
<p>See also Aerospace Walk of Honor - downtown Lancaster sidewalk tribute to the U. S. Air Force flight test community.</p><br>
<h2>Valley place names</h2><br>
<h3>Cities over 100,000 population</h3><br>
<p>Lancaster (population as of 2012, 159,055) - incorporated in 1977</p><br>
<p>Palmdale (population as of 2012, 155,650) - incorporated in 1962</p><br>
<h3>Cities less than 100,000 population</h3><br>
<p>California City (population 14,828) - incorporated in 1965</p><br>
<h3>Unincorporated towns and districts</h3><br>
<p>Over 10,000 population</p><br>
<p>Rosamond (18,150)</p><br>
<p>Lake Los Angeles (12,328)</p><br>
<p>Quartz Hill (10,912)</p><br>
<p>Sun Village (11,302)</p><br>
<p>&#39;Under 10,000 population</p><br>
<p>Acton (technically in the San Gabriel Mountains) (7,596)</p><br>
<p>Agua Dulce (technically in the San Gabriel Mountains) (4,254)</p><br>
<p>Antelope Acres (3,059)</p><br>
<p>Boron (2,253)</p><br>
<p>Del Sur (1,750)</p><br>
<p>Elizabeth Lake (technically in the Leona Valley) (1,756)</p><br>
<p>Inyokern (technically in the Indian Wells Valley)</p><br>
<p>Johannesburg</p><br>
<p>Juniper Hills (1,101)</p><br>
<p>Lake Hughes (technically in the Leona Valley)</p><br>
<p>Leona Valley (technically in the Leona Valley)</p><br>
<p>Littlerock (1,377)</p><br>
<p>Llano (739)</p><br>
<p>Mojave (4,238)</p><br>
<p>Monolith (technically in the Tehachapi Valley)</p><br>
<p>Neenach (560)</p><br>
<p>North Edwards</p><br>
<p>Pearblossom (2,435)</p><br>
<p>Pinon Hills (technically in the Victor Valley)</p><br>
<p>Randsburg</p><br>
<p>Saltdale</p><br>
<p>Valyermo (691)</p><br>
<p>Wilsona Gardens (210)</p><br>
<p>Willow Springs (1,784)</p><br>
<p>Rab  is an island in Croatia and a town of the same name located just off the northern Croatian coast in the Adriatic Sea.</p><br>
<p>The island is 22 km long, has an area of 93.6 km²</p><br>
<p>and 9,328 inhabitants (2011). The highest peak is Kamenjak at 408 m. The northeastern side of the island is mostly barren, karst, while the southwestern side is covered by one of the last oak forests of the Mediterranean.</p><br>
<p>Ferries connect the island of Rab with the mainland port of Stinica and with the neighbouring islands of Krk and Pag. European Coastal Airlines offers multiple daily connections by seaplane from Rab to Zagreb and to Rijeka via Rijeka Airport in Omišalj on the neighboring island of Krk.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>The island of Rab was first mentioned in a Greek source Periplus of Pseudo-Scylax (360 BC) and then by other Greek and Roman geographists by the name Arba. That name belonged to the Liburnians, so far the oldest known inhabitants of the island. Arba was also the name of the Liburnian settlement in the modern city of Rab. It is not certain how old this name is; it may be as old as the settlement, which means from the beginning of the Iron Age, since the Liburnians did not build the city walls on the island. The Illyrian-Liburnian word Arb meant dark, obscure, green, forested. Therefore, name Arba should be comprehended as a toponym meaning "Black island", due to the rich pine forests that once grew on the island.</p><br>
<p>After the 1st century AD it was recorded by many other Greek and Roman authors by the names Arba and Arva.</p><br>
<p>Its Medieval Dalmatian speaking population used Arbe, Arbia, Arbiana, Arbitana and most frequently Arbum in the documents written in the Latin language.</p><br>
<p>Arbe became also the Venetian name of the city in the 15th century when it fell under the authority of the Republic of Venice.</p><br>
<p>In the Croatian language it became Rab, a form which probably goes back as far as the 7th centurywhen the Slavs began to settle on the island. However, the first record of name Rab is preserved only in the middle of the 15th century (in a Latin document relating to the establishment of the Franciscan monastery of St. Eufemija), since the major establishment of Croatian inhabitants in the city did not occur before the 10th century, unlike the rest of the island and region.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The island is first heard of under the Illyrians in 360 BC. It was part of Liburnia and then part of the Roman Empire. The emperor Octavian Augustus built town walls and gave Rab the title of Municipium.</p><br>
<p>Saint Marinus, the founder of the mini-state of San Marino, originated on Rab, whence he fled during the religious persecutions of the Emperor Diocletian (this ancient tie is commemorated in the present twin-city agreement between Rab and San Marino).</p><br>
<p>The earliest bishop of Arba whose name is preserved in an extant document is Titianus, a participant in a council held in 532 Salona, the metropolitan see of which Arba was a suffragan. On 17 October 1154, Arba was attached instead to the archdiocese of Zadar. By the papal bull Locum Beati Petri of 30 June 1828, the history of the diocese as a residential see came to an end and its territory was united with that of Krk. No longer a residential bishopric, Arba is today listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see.</p><br>
<p>During the Middle Ages, Rab remained as part of the Roman Empire (or Byzantine Empire, as it would come to be known by historians by this point). Although, for a short time, it formed a part of the Kingdom of Croatia. In 1000 the island, together with the many other islands and cities of Dalmatia, submitted to the Republic of Venice. In 1358 the island came under the rule of King Louis the Great, the Angevin ruler of Hungary.</p><br>
<p>During the Renaissance it was ruled by Venice from 1409 until the end of 18th century followed by a brief interlude under Napoleon. It was eventually annexed by the Habsburgs in 1815 and remained under Austrian rule till 1918.</p><br>
<p>Since a majority of its residents were Italian-speaking, the locals sought to be annexed to the Kingdom of Italy, but Italy eventually decided to cede the island to Yugoslavia in 1921, and many of its Italian-speaking residents subsequently left for Istria and the rest of Italy.</p><br>
<p>During World War II, the forces of Fascist Italy established the Rab concentration camp on the island. A memorial complex built in 1953 commemorates the site of the former camp, located in the village of Kampor.</p><br>
<p>After the Second World War, the island was part of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia until the Croatian independence referendum in 1991.</p><br>
<p>The island of Rab is rich in cultural heritage and cultural-historical monuments that make it a popular vacation destination. Rab is also known as a pioneer of naturism after the visit of King Edward VIII and Mrs Wallis Simpson.</p><br>
<p>The island is nowadays very popular with tourists and families for its beautiful nature, beaches, heritage and many events, particularly the Rab arbalest tournament and the Rab Medieval festival - Rapska Fjera.</p><br>
<h2>Twin cities</h2><br>
<p>Sežana</p><br>
<p>Königsbrunn</p><br>
<p>San Marino</p><br>
<p>Lake Thun  is an Alpine lake in the Bernese Oberland in Switzerland named after the city of Thun, on its northern shore.</p><br>
<p>The lake was created after the last glacial period. After the 10th century, it split from Lake Brienz, before which the two lakes were combined, as Wendelsee ("Lake Wendel"). The culminating point of the lake&#39;s drainage basin is the Finsteraarhorn at 4,274 m above sea level.</p><br>
<p>Lake Thun&#39;s approximate 2,500 km² (970 sq mi) catchment area frequently causes local flooding after heavy rainfalls. This occurs because the river Aare (Aare), which drains Lake Thun, has only limited capacity to handle the excess runoff. The lake is fed by water from Lake Brienz to the southeast, which is 6 m higher than Lake Thun, and various streams in the Oberland, including the Kander.</p><br>
<p>In 1835, passenger ships began operating on the lake. Ten passenger ships, operated by the local railway company BLS AG, serve the towns of Interlaken and Thun; the Interlaken ship canal and Thun ship canal connect the lake to Interlaken West railway station and Thun railway station respectively.</p><br>
<p>Following World War II and up until 1964, the Swiss Government disposed of unused munitions into Lake Thun. The quantity of munitions dumped is reported to be from 3,000 to more than 9,020 tons.</p><br>
<p>Lake Brienz  is a lake just north of the Alps, in the canton of Berne in Switzerland. It has a length of about 14 km, a width of 2.8 km and a maximum depth of 260 m. Its area is 29.8 km&sup2, and the surface is 564 m above the sea-level. It is fed by the upper reaches of the Aare at its eastern end and by the Lütschine, flowing from the valleys of Grindelwald and Lauterbrunnen, at its south-western corner. It flows out into a further stretch of the Aare at its western end. The culminating point of the lake&#39;s drainage basin is the Finsteraarhorn at 4,274 metres above sea level.</p><br>
<p>The village of Brienz, from which the lake takes its name, lies to its eastern end. In the west the lake is terminated by the Bödeli, a tongue of land that separates it from neighbouring Lake Thun. The village of Bönigen occupies the lake frontage of the Bödeli, whilst the larger resort town of Interlaken lies on the reach of the Aare between the two lakes. The village of Iseltwald lies on the south shore, whilst the villages of Ringgenberg, Niederried and Oberried are on the north shore.</p><br>
<p>The lake is poor in nutritients, and consequently fishing is not very important. Nevertheless, in 2001 10,000 kg fish were caught.</p><br>
<p>There have been passenger ships on the lake since 1839, and currently there are five passenger ships on the lake. The ships are operated by BLS AG, the local railway company, and link Interlaken Ost railway station, which they access using a 1.3 km long navigable stretch of the Aare, with Brienz and other lakeside settlements. The ships also connect to the Giessbachbahn, a funicular which climbs up to the famous Giessbach Falls.</p><br>
<p>The Brünig railway line follows the northern shore of the lake, along with a local road, whilst the A8 motorway adopts an alternative, and partially tunnelled, route above the southern shore.</p><br>
<p>Lake Bienne or Lake Biel or  is a lake in the west of Switzerland. Together with Lake Morat and Lake Neuchâtel, it is one of the three large lakes in the Jura region of Switzerland. It lies approximately at {{coord|47|5|N|7|10|E|type:waterbody_region:CH|name=Lake Biel}}, at the language boundary between German and French speaking areas.</p><br>
<p>The lake is 15 km long and up to 4.1 km wide. Its surface area is 39.3 km², the maximum depth 74 m. The lake is located at 429 metres above sea level.</p><br>
<p>Lake Biel has a catchment area of about 8,305 km². Water remains in the lake for an average of 58 days. The rivers Aare and Zihl/Thielle flowing from Lake Neuchâtel, the Twannbach draining water down from the surplombing first Jura mountain range and the Suze draining water down from the Vallon de St. Imier, are the main tributaries. The Aare was redirected into the lake in 1878, in order to prevent the flooding of the nearby area called "Seeland", and drains the water out of the lake down to Büren through a simultaneously man-made channel. The level of all three lakes is being controlled by a dam built across the channel, in Port.</p><br>
<p>The largest settlement along the shores of Lake Biel are the bilingual city of Biel/Bienne and its sister city Nidau, both located on the northern end. The St. Peter&#39;s Island attracts tourists. The island is located near Erlach/Cerlier. Jean-Jacques Rousseau once spent a few months on the island.</p><br>
<p>One of the main business in the area is the watch and affiliated microtechnic industries. World famous watch brands have their sites and headquarters in the area, including the Swatch Group and Rolex movements manufacture.</p><br>
<p>The lake&#39;s surface is the lowest point of the canton of Neuchâtel.</p><br>
<h2>Towns and villages by the lake</h2><br>
<p>As the lake is located on the border of the French and German language regions, most places have names in both languages, though not all versions are still in use.</p><br>
<p>*Alfermée</p><br>
<p>*Bipschal - Bévesier</p><br>
<p>*Erlach - Cerlier</p><br>
<p>*Gaicht - Jugy</p><br>
<p>*Gerolfingen</p><br>
<p>*Hagneck</p><br>
<p>*Im Rusel</p><br>
<p>*Ipsach</p><br>
<p>*Le Landeron (canton of Neuchâtel) - Landern</p><br>
<p>*Ligerz - Gléresse</p><br>
<p>*Lüscherz - Locras</p><br>
<p>*Mörigen - Morenges</p><br>
<p>*Neuenstadt - La Neuveville</p><br>
<p>*Nidau</p><br>
<p>*Sankt-Petersinsel - Ile de Saint-Pierre</p><br>
<p>*Schafis - Chavanne</p><br>
<p>*Schernelz - Cernaux</p><br>
<p>*Sutz-Lattrigen</p><br>
<p>*Täuffelen - Choufaille</p><br>
<p>*Tüscherz - Daucher</p><br>
<p>*Twann - Douanne</p><br>
<p>*Vinelz - Fénil</p><br>
<p>*Vingelz - Vigneules</p><br>
<p>*Wingreis - Vingras</p><br>
<p>Lake Morat or Lake Murten  is a lake located in the cantons of Fribourg and Vaud in the west of Switzerland. It is named after the small bilingual town of Murten/Morat on its southern shore.</p><br>
<p>It is the smallest of the three lakes in the Seeland or Pays des trois lacs area of the Swiss plateau located at the foot of the first chain of the Jura mountains. The main tributary is the river Broye.</p><br>
<p>Since the Jura water correction its water leaves the lake through the Broye Canal (Canal de la Broye) into nearby Lake Neuchâtel that is connected to Lake Bienne/Lake Biel through the Thielle canal. Thus all three lakes form a natural reservoir in order to retain overflow water from the river Aare that flows into Lake Bienne/Biel: in times of combined heavy rainfalls and glacier</p><br>
<p>melting in the Alps, the peculiar situation arises that the water flows backwards through the Thielle and Broye canals, preventing an overflow of the Grand Marais.</p><br>
<p>Mount Mansfield is the highest mountain in Vermont with a summit that peaks at 4,395 ft above sea level. The summit is located within the town of Underhill in Chittenden County; the ridgeline, including some secondary peaks, extends into the town of Stowe in Lamoille County, and the mountain&#39;s flanks also reach into the town of Cambridge.</p><br>
<p>When viewed from the east or west, this mountain has the appearance of a (quite elongated) human profile, with distinct forehead, nose, lips, chin, and Adam&#39;s apple. These features are most distinct when viewed from the east; unlike most human faces, the chin is the highest point.</p><br>
<p>Mount Mansfield is one of three spots in Vermont where true alpine tundra survives from the Ice Ages. A few acres exist on Camels Hump and Mount Abraham nearby and to the south, but Mount Mansfields summit still holds about 200 acre.</p><br>
<p>Located in Mount Mansfield State Forest, the mountain is used for various recreational and commercial purposes. "The Nose" is home to transmitter towers for a number of regional radio and TV stations. There are many hiking trails, including the Long Trail, which traverses the main ridgeline. In addition, the east flank of the mountain is used by the Stowe Mountain Resort for winter skiing. A popular tourist activity is to take the toll road (about 4 miles, steep, mostly unpaved, with several hairpin turns) from the Stowe Base Lodge to "The Nose" and hike along the ridge to "The Chin."</p><br>
<h2>Geology and soils</h2><br>
<p>The dominant bedrock of Mt. Mansfield is a mica-albite-quartz schist common to the Green Mountains. Layers of quartzite are found locally. The soils, mostly podzol, are stony with fine-earth fractions grading through textures of fine sandy loam, loam and silt loam; they are mapped mostly as Londonderry, Lyman, Peru and Tunbridge series with considerable areas of Rock Outcrop around the summit.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The name comes from the dissolved town of Mansfield, Vermont, in which the mountain was located. It was common for settlers to name Vermont towns for their previous homes; several of the original grantees were from Mansfield, Connecticut, which in turn is known to have been named for Moses Mansfield, one of the chief landowners there. The Town of Mansfield was platted before anyone involved had visited the site; when it was surveyed, it was discovered to be mostly mountainside. Although a few hardy pioneers settled in the town&#39;s few lowlands, the town was dissolved by degrees, with the portion generally west of the mountain being annexed to Underhill in 1839, the eastern portion to Stowe in 1848 after a vote of the citizenry. The dividing line did not run exactly along the ridge of the mountain; thus, the Chin is in Underhill and the Nose in Stowe.</p><br>
<h2>Topography</h2><br>
<p>The ridge which forms the "head" of the "man" is aligned generally north and south. The "Adam&#39;s apple" is on the north end of the ridge, and the "forehead" to the south. From north of the mountain, looking south, this ridge appears as a triangular peak. At the northeastern portion of the mountain, there are cliffs. At the base of these cliffs (on the western side of the Notch Road, Vermont Route 108), there is a honeycomb network of talus caves. There are cliffs on the eastern side of the Notch Road as well. These two sets of facing cliffs are separated by 3 yards at their base.</p><br>
<h2>Skiing</h2><br>
<p>Along with other expert trails, a group of trails, known as the "Front Four", are Goat, Starr, National and Liftline. They have steep pitches, many natural hazards (rocks and trees), and little grooming. There are also cross country ski trails around the base of the mountain and on its lower slopes. The Bruce Trail descends the east side of the mountain while the Teardrop Trail descends west side. In addition to Stowe Mountain resort, Skiing is also available at the nearby Smugglers&#39; Notch Resort.</p><br>
<h2>Hiking</h2><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>Muckle Roe is an island in Shetland, Scotland, in St. Magnus Bay, to the west of Mainland, Shetland. It has a population of around 130 people, who mainly croft and live in the south east of the island.</p><br>
<p>Muckle is Scots for big or great.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The island is referred to in the Orkneyinga saga.</p><br>
<p>In 1905 a bridge was built between Muckle Roe and the Shetland Mainland over Roe Sound at a cost of £1,020 met from public subscription and a grant from the Congested Districts Board. The construction was of iron and concrete and its completion was followed by a reversal in the population decline seen in the 19th and earlier 20th centuries. A replacement bridge was built in 1999.</p><br>
<p>Muckle Roe was part of the civil parish of Delting until the abolition of civil parishes in Scotland by the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1929.</p><br>
<h2>Geography and geology</h2><br>
<p>Muckle Roe is approximately 3 mi in diameter, with high cliffs in the south. Its highest point is Mid Ward 172 m.</p><br>
<p>The island&#39;s rock is red granite, which gives the island its name – a combination of Scots and Old Norse meaning "big red island".</p><br>
<p>There are crofts in the east and south east. The rest of the island is lochan-studded moorland.</p><br>
<h2>Population</h2><br>
<p>The Pagasetic Gulf  is a rounded gulf  in the Magnesia regional unit  that is formed by the Mount Pelion peninsula. It is connected with the Euboic Sea. The passage into the Euboic Sea is narrow and is about 4 km.</p><br>
<p>Its main port is Volos.</p><br>
<h2>Places within the gulf</h2><br>
<p>In clockwise order:</p><br>
<p>*Amaliapolis, W, port</p><br>
<p>*Alos, W, no port</p><br>
<p>*Almyros, W, no port</p><br>
<p>*Nea Anchialos, NW, beach, port,</p><br>
<p>*Pagasae, NW, no port</p><br>
<p>*Demetrias, NW, no port</p><br>
<p>*Iolkos, NW, no port</p><br>
<p>*Volos, N, main port</p><br>
<p>*Agria, NE, beach, port</p><br>
<p>*Neochori, E, no port,</p><br>
<p>*Argalasti, E, no port, beaches (Lefokastro, Kalamos, Horto)</p><br>
<p>*Milina, SE, no port, beaches</p><br>
<p>*Trikeri, S, port at Agia Kyriaki, beaches</p><br>
<p>The gulf took its name from the ancient city of Pagasae.</p><br>
<p>The Salmon Falls River is a tributary of the Piscataqua River in the U.S. states of Maine and New Hampshire. It rises at Great East Lake, Newichawannock Canal, and Horn Pond and flows south-southeast for approximately 38 mi, forming the border between York County, Maine, and Strafford County, New Hampshire.</p><br>
<p>The Salmon Falls River joins the Cochecho River near Dover, New Hampshire to form the Piscataqua River.</p><br>
<p>It provides hydroelectric power at the New Hampshire towns of Milton, North Rochester, East Rochester, New Hampshire, Somersworth, and Rollinsford, and in Maine at Berwick and South Berwick. The final three miles of the river, from South Berwick to the Piscataqua, are tidal.</p><br>
<p>Local Abenaki Indians called the river Newichawannock, meaning "river with many falls". See Newichawannock Canal</p><br>
<p>The Malay Archipelago  is the archipelago between mainland Indochina and Australia. It has also been called the Malay World, Indo-Australian Archipelago, East Indies, Nusantara, Spices Archipelago, and other names over time. The name was taken from the 19th-century European concept of a Malay race, later based on the distribution of Austronesian languages.</p><br>
<p>Situated between the Indian and Pacific Oceans, the group of over 25,000 islands is the largest archipelago by area, and fourth by number of islands in the world. It includes Brunei, Singapore, East Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines and East Timor. The island of New Guinea is usually excluded from definitions of the Malay Archipelago, although the Indonesian western portion of the island may be included.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology and terminology</h2><br>
<p>The term was derived from the European concept of a Malay race, which referred to the people who inhabited what is now Brunei, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia (excluding Western New Guinea), the Philippines and East Timor. The racial concept was proposed by European explorers based on their observations of the influence of the ethnic Malay empire, Srivijaya, which was based on the island of Sumatra, Indonesia.</p><br>
<p>The 19th-century naturalist Alfred Wallace used the term "Malay Archipelago" as the title of his influential book documenting his studies in the region. Wallace also referred to the area as the "Indian Archipelago" and the "Indo-Australian" Archipelago. He included within the region the Solomon Islands and the Malay Peninsula due to physiographic similarities. As Wallace noted,</p><br>
<p>"If we draw a line... commencing along the western coast of Gilolo, through the island of Bouru, and curving round the west end of Mores, then bending back by Sandalwood Island to take in Rotti, we shall divide the Archipelago into two portions, the races of which have strongly marked distinctive peculiarities. This line will separate the Malayan and all the Asiatic races, from the Papuans and all that inhabit the Pacific; and though along the line of junction intermigration and commixture have taken place, yet the division is on the whole almost as well defined and strongly contrasted, as is the corresponding zoological division of the Archipelago, into an Indo-Malayan and Austro-Malayan region." there are arguments for excluding Papua New Guinea for cultural and geographical reasons: Papua New Guinea is culturally quite different from the other countries in the region, and the island of New Guinea is geologically not part of the continent of Asia, as the islands of the Sunda Shelf are (see Australia).</p><br>
<p>The archipelago was called the "East Indies" from the late 16th century and throughout the European colonial era. It is still sometimes referred to as such, but broader usages of the "East Indies" term had included Indochina and the Indian subcontinent. The area is called "Nusantara" in the Indonesian and Malaysian languages. The area is also referred to as the "Indonesian archipelago". The term "maritime Southeast Asia" is largely synonymous, covering both the islands in Southeast Asia and nearby island-like communities, such as those found on the Malay Peninsula.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The land and sea area of the archipelago exceeds 2 million km. The more than 25,000 islands of the archipelago comprise many smaller archipelagoes.</p><br>
<p>The major groupings are:</p><br>
<p>Indonesia</p><br>
<p>Sunda Islands</p><br>
<p>*Greater Sunda Islands</p><br>
<p>*Lesser Sunda Islands</p><br>
<p>Maluku Islands</p><br>
<p>Philippine Archipelago</p><br>
<p>Visayan Islands</p><br>
<p>New Guinea and surrounding islands (when included)</p><br>
<p>The seven largest islands are New Guinea, Borneo, Sumatra, Sulawesi and Java in Indonesia; and Luzon and Mindanao in the Philippines.</p><br>
<p>Geologically the archipelago is one of the most active volcanic regions in the world. Tectonic uplifts have produced large mountains, including the highest in Mount Kinabalu in Sabah, Malaysia, with a height of 4,095.2 m and Puncak Jaya on Papua, Indonesia at 4,884 m. Other high mountains in the archipelago include Puncak Mandala, Indonesia at 4,760 m and Puncak Trikora, Indonesia, at 4,750 m.</p><br>
<p>The climate throughout the archipelago is tropical, owing to its position on the equator.</p><br>
<h3>Biogeography</h3><br>
<p>Wallace used the term Malay Archipelago as the title of his influential book documenting his studies in the region. He proposed what would come to be known as the "Wallace Line", a boundary that separated the flora and fauna of Asia and Australia. The ice age boundary was formed by the deep water straits between Borneo and Sulawesi; and through the Lombok Strait between Bali and Lombok. This is now considered the western border of the Wallacea transition zone between the zoogeographical regions of Asia and Australia. The zone has a mixture of species of Asian and Australian origin, and its own endemic species.</p><br>
<h2>Demography</h2><br>
<p>Over 380 million people live in the region, with the 12 most populated islands being:</p><br>
<p>Java (141,000,000)</p><br>
<p>Sumatra (50,180,000)</p><br>
<p>Luzon (48,520,774)</p><br>
<p>Mindanao (21,902,000)</p><br>
<p>Borneo (21,258,000)</p><br>
<p>Sulawesi (21,258,000)</p><br>
<p>New Guinea (11,818,000)</p><br>
<p>Singapore (5,535,000)</p><br>
<p>Negros (4,414,131)</p><br>
<p>Panay (4,307,000)</p><br>
<p>Bali (4,225,384)</p><br>
<p>Cebu (3,979,155)</p><br>
<p>The people living there are predominantly from Austronesian subgroupings and correspondingly speak western Malayo-Polynesian languages. The main religions in this region are Islam, Christianity, Buddhism, Hinduism and traditional animism.</p><br>
<p>Culturally, the region is often seen as part of "Farther India" or Greater India—the Coedes Indianized states of Southeast Asia refers to it as "Island Southeast Asia".</p><br>
<p>The Texas State Capitol, completed in 1888 in Downtown Austin, contains the offices and chambers of the Texas Legislature and the Office of the Governor. Designed in 1881 by architect Elijah E. Myers, it was constructed from 1882 to 1888 under the direction of civil engineer Reuben Lindsay Walker. A $75 million underground extension was completed in 1993. The building was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1970 and recognized as a National Historic Landmark in 1986. The Texas State Capitol is 302.64 ft tall, making it the sixth tallest state capitol and one of several taller than the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The current Texas State Capitol is the third building to serve that purpose. The second Texas capitol was built in 1853, on the same site as the present capitol in Austin; it was destroyed in the great capitol fire of 1881, but plans had already been made to replace it with a new, much larger structure.</p><br>
<h3>Construction</h3><br>
<p>Construction of the Italian Renaissance Revival–style capitol was funded by an article of the state constitution, adopted on February 15, 1876, which authorized the sale of public lands for the purpose. In one of the largest barter transactions of recorded history, the builders of the capitol (John V. Farwell and Charles B. Farwell), known as the Capitol Syndicate, were paid with more than three-million acres (12,000 km²) of public land in the "Panhandle" region of Texas; this tract later became the largest cattle ranch in the world, the XIT Ranch. The value of the land, combined with expenses, added to a total cost of $3.7 million for the original building. It was constructed largely by convicts or migrant workers, as many as a thousand at a time. The building has been renovated several times, with central air conditioning installed in 1955 and the most recent refurbishments completed in 1997.</p><br>
<p>The cornerstone for the building was laid on March 2, 1885, Texas Independence Day, and the completed building was opened to the public on April 21, 1888, San Jacinto Day. The designers originally planned for the building to be clad entirely with hill country limestone quarried in Oatmanville (present-day Oak Hill), about 10 mi to the southwest. However, the high iron content of the limestone led it to rapidly discolor with rust stains when exposed to the elements. Learning of the problem, the owners of Granite Mountain near Marble Falls offered to donate to the state, free of charge, the necessary amount of sunset red granite as an alternative. While the building is mostly built of the Oak Hill limestone, most of this is hidden behind the walls and on the foundations. Red granite was subsequently used for many state government buildings in the Austin area.</p><br>
<h3>Capitol View Corridors</h3><br>
<p>In 1931, the City of Austin enacted a local ordinance limiting the height of new buildings to a maximum of 200 ft, aiming to preserve the visual preeminence of the capitol. From that time until the early 1960s, only the University of Texas Main Building Tower was built higher than the limit, but in 1962 developers announced a new 261 ft high-rise residential building to be built adjacent to the capitol, called the Westgate Tower. Governor Price Daniel voiced his opposition to the proposed tower, and State Representative Henry Grover of Houston introducing a bill to condemn the property, which was defeated in the Texas House of Representatives by only two votes. The Westgate was eventually completed in 1966, but the controversy over the preservation of the capitol&#39;s visual presence that dogged its construction continued to grow.</p><br>
<p>The Westgate was followed by even taller structures: first the Dobie Center (designed in 1968), and then a series of ever larger downtown bank towers, culminating in the 395 ft One American Center (designed in 1982). The bill was signed into law on May 3, 1983, defining thirty state-protected viewing corridors and prohibiting any construction that would intersect one of them. The City of Austin has adopted similar rules, so that the majority of the corridors are also protected under municipal zoning code, as well as under state law.</p><br>
<h3>Capitol extension and restorations</h3><br>
<p>On February 6, 1983 a fire began in the apartment of William P. Hobby Jr., then the state lieutenant governor. A guest of Hobby&#39;s was killed, and four firemen and a policeman were injured by the subsequent blaze. The capitol was crowded with accumulated archives, and the fire was intense and came dangerously close to destroying the structure. It caused severe damage to the east wing and compromised much of the framing, which was largely composed of exposed cast iron posts and beams. Restoration continued until 1993, and the state took advantage of the extensive rebuilding to update the mechanical and structural systems to modern standards.</p><br>
<p>Additionally, the state sought to address the intensifying shortage of space in the old building, deciding that a new office wing should be added. The logical place for an addition was the plaza immediately to the north; however, a large building there would have eliminated the historic north façade and covered what had traditionally been seen as an important public space. Instead, an expansion to the capitol was built beneath the north plaza, connecting to the existing capital underground.</p><br>
<p>In 1993, the $75 million, four-story, underground capitol extension was completed to the north, doubling the square footage available to capitol occupants and providing much improved functionality. Though the extension encompasses 667,000 ft&sup2; (nearly twice the floor space of the original building), there is little evidence of such a large structure at ground level, except for extensive skylights camouflaged as planter rows, and the four-story open-air inverted rotunda.</p><br>
<p>In 1995, a comprehensive interior and exterior restoration of the original building was completed at a cost of approximately $98 million. In 1997, the park-like grounds surrounding the capitol received an $8 million renovation and restoration.</p><br>
<h2>The capitol today</h2><br>
<p>The capitol building and grounds are located in downtown Austin, with the main entrance facing onto the Congress Avenue Historic District to the south. The northern edge of the grounds lies four blocks south of the University of Texas at Austin.</p><br>
<h3>Building</h3><br>
<p>The capitol has 360,000 ft&sup2; of floor space (not including the Capitol Extension), more than any other state capitol building, and rests on 2.25 acre of land. The building has nearly four hundred rooms and more than nine hundred windows. The interior of the central rotunda features portraits of every person who has served as president of the Republic of Texas or governor of the State of Texas; the rotunda is also a whispering gallery. The south foyer features a large portrait of David Crockett, a painting depicting the surrender of General Santa Anna at the Battle of San Jacinto, and sculptures of Sam Houston and Stephen F. Austin made by Elisabet Ney.</p><br>
<p>The Texas State Capitol was ranked ninety-second in the "America&#39;s Favorite Architecture" poll commissioned by the American Institute of Architects, that ranked the top 150 favorite architectural projects in America as of 2007. In a 2008 poll by the AIA, it was also ranked the number-one state capitol.</p><br>
<h3>Grounds</h3><br>
<p>The Capitol building is surrounded by 22 acre of grounds scattered with statues and monuments. William Munro Johnson, civil engineer, was hired in 1888 to improve the appearance of the grounds. By the time the first monument, commemorating the Heroes of the Alamo, was installed in 1891, the major components of Johnsons plan were in place. These included a "Great Walk" of black and white diamond-patterned pavement shaded by trees. The four oldest monuments are the Heroes of the Alamo (1891), Volunteer Firemen (1896), Confederate Soldiers (1903) and Terrys Texas Rangers (1907), and these flank the tree-lined Great Walk. In the spring of 2013, ground was broken for the Texas Capitol Vietnam Veterans Monument; dedication took place on March 29, 2014.</p><br>
<p>A granite monument of the Ten Commandments on the grounds of the Texas State Capitol was the topic of a 2005 USA Supreme Court case, Van Orden v. Perry, in which the display was challenged as unconstitutional. In late June 2005, the Court ruled that the display was not unconstitutional.</p><br>
<h3>Exterior</h3><br>
<h3>Interior</h3><br>
<p>Texas Capitol Rotunda Dome Interior.jpgThe Capitol dome&#39;s interior</p><br>
<h3>Grounds</h3><br>
<p>Dunvegan Castle is located 1 mi to the north of Dunvegan on the Isle of Skye, off the west coast of Scotland. It is the seat of the MacLeod of MacLeod, chief of the Clan MacLeod. Probably a fortified site from the earliest times, the castle was first built in the 13th century and developed piecemeal over the centuries. In the 19th century the whole was remodelled in a mock-medieval style. The castle is built on an elevated rock overlooking an inlet on the eastern shore of Loch Dunvegan, a sea loch.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The site is likely to have been a Norse dun (fort), though no traces of any prehistoric structure now remain. The promontory was enclosed by a curtain wall in the 13th century, and a four-storey tower house was built in the late 14th century. This tower was similar in style to contemporary structures at Kisimul Castle and Caisteal Maol. Alasdair Crotach, the 8th chief, added the Fairy Tower as a separate building around 1500. During the 17th century, new ranges of buildings were put up between the old tower and the Fairy Tower, beginning in 1623 with the state apartment built by Ruaraidh Mor. The old tower was subsequently abandoned until the late 18th century, when the 23rd chief began the process of homogenising the appearance of the castle. This process continued under the 24th and 25th chiefs, with the addition of mock battlements and the new approach over a drawbridge from the east. The present appearance of the castle dates from around 1840 when this process of "baronialisation" was completed. The castle is a Category A listed building.</p><br>
<h2>The site</h2><br>
<p>Dunvegan Castle occupies the summit of a rock some 50 ft above sea level, which projects on to the eastern shore of a north-facing inlet or bay. On the eastern, landward side of the site is a partly natural ditch around 18 ft deep.</p><br>
<h2>Artifacts</h2><br>
<p>Notable family heirlooms kept at Dunvegan Castle include:</p><br>
<p>Dunvegan Cup</p><br>
<p>Fairy Flag</p><br>
<p>Sir Rory Mor&#39;s Horn</p><br>
<p>Carbisdale Castle was built in 1907 for the Duchess of Sutherland on a hill across the Kyle of Sutherland from Invershin in the Scottish Highlands. Until 2011 it was used as a youth hostel, operated by the Scottish Youth Hostels Association. The castle is situated north of Culrain, and around 5 km north-west of Bonar Bridge. The castle is in the Scots Baronial style, and is protected as a category B listed building. The hostel closed for repair in 2011, and was put up for sale for £1.2m. In April 2016, the asking price was lowered to £900,000, and a sale was completed in September 2016. The buyers are FCFM Group Ltd who stated they intend to make it "a world-class private residence".</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The castle was built between 1905 and 1917 for Mary Caroline, Duchess of Sutherland, the second wife of George Sutherland-Leveson-Gower, 3rd Duke of Sutherland, whom she married in 1889. She is better known as "Duchess Blair" because of her first marriage to Captain Arthur Kindersely Blair of the 71st Highland Light Infantry, who died in a hunting accident in 1883 near Pitlochry. The marriage was not well liked in the Sutherland family. When the Duke died in 1892 his will, in favour of the Duchess, was contested by his son and heir Cromartie. In a court process that followed, the Duchess was found guilty of destroying documents and was imprisoned for six weeks in London.</p><br>
<p>Eventually, the Sutherland family came to an agreement giving Duchess Blair a substantial financial settlement. Furthermore, the family agreed to build a castle for the Duchess, as long as it was outside of the Sutherland lands. The Duchess employed a firm of Ayrshire builders and work started in 1906 just outside the Sutherland lands in Ross-shire. It was located on a hillside to be visible to a large part of Sutherland, especially the main road and rail line which the Sutherland family would have to use to travel south. Thus it became known as the "Castle of Spite" as it was widely considered that the Duchess located the castle there to spite her husbands family and the settlement agreement. This is further supported by the fact that the castles tower only has clocks on three of its four faces - the side facing Sutherland is blank, supposedly because the Duchess did not wish to give the time of day to her former relatives.</p><br>
<p>Colonel Theodore Salvesen, a wealthy Scottish businessman of Norwegian extraction, bought the castle in 1933. He provided the castle as a safe refuge for King Haakon VII of Norway and Crown Prince Olav, who would later become King Olav V, during the Nazi occupation of Norway in World War II. During that time the castle was also used to hold important meetings. King Haakon VII made an agreement at the Carbisdale Conference on 22 June 1941, that the Russian forces, should they enter Norwegian territory, would not stay there after the war. Three years later, on 25 October 1944, the Red Army entered Norway and captured thirty towns, but later withdrew according to the terms of the agreement. After the Colonel died his son, Captain Harold Salvesen, inherited the castle and gave its contents and estate to the Scottish Youth Hostels Association. Carbisdale Castle Youth Hostel opened to members on 2 June 1945.</p><br>
<p>Following frost damage, the hostel closed for repairs in February 2011. Further structural damage was discovered, and over £2 million has been spent on repairs.</p><br>
<p>Towards the end of 2014, Carbisdale Castle was advertised for sale by the SYHA, and 17 marble sculptures and 36 19th Century paintings were put up for sale at a London auction in May 2015, raising £1million for the SYHA. A sale to FCFM Group Ltd was completed in September 2016.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The castle is 41,433 ft&sup2; and has 365 windows, and the clock-tower only has clocks on three sides: the side facing Sutherland does not have a clock. There is a secret door below the Great Staircase which could be opened by rotating one of the statues. This mechanism is no longer in use. Until its closure, the castle had a large collection of art, with some pieces dating back to the year 1680, as well as the Italian marble statues.</p><br>
<p>The castle is said to have several ghosts. Paranormal experts have investigated with varying results. The appearances include a lady in white, fallen soldiers of the Battle of Carbisdale (1650) and the sounds of a piper. The ghost of the castle gardener, known as "The Hooded Gardener", is said to roam the grounds looking for his lost daughter. He is said to haunt girls that are the same age as his own daughter (15), and has reportedly been seen dressed in black, with a black hood and only part of his face shown.</p><br>
<p>Delaware Bay is the estuary outlet of the Delaware River on the Northeast seaboard of the United States. Approximately 782 square miles in area, the bay&#39;s fresh water mixes for many miles with the salt water of the Atlantic Ocean.</p><br>
<p>The bay is bordered inland by the States of New Jersey and Delaware, and the Delaware Capes, Cape Henlopen and Cape May, on the Atlantic. The Delaware Bay is bordered by six counties: Sussex, Kent, and New Castle in Delaware, along with Cape May, Cumberland, and Salem in New Jersey. The Cape May-Lewes Ferry crosses the Delaware Bay from Cape May, New Jersey, to Lewes, Delaware. Management of ports along the bay is the responsibility of the Delaware River and Bay Authority.</p><br>
<p>The shores of the bay are largely composed of salt marshes and mudflats, with only small communities inhabiting the shore of the lower bay. Besides the Delaware, it is fed by numerous smaller rivers and streams, including (from north to south) the Christina River, Appoquinimink River, Leipsic River, Smyrna River, St. Jones River, and Murderkill Rivers on the Delaware side, and the Salem River, Cohansey River, and Maurice Rivers on the New Jersey side. Several of the rivers hold protected status for their unique salt marsh wetlands bordering the bay, which serves as a breeding ground for many aquatic species, including horseshoe crabs. The bay is also a prime oystering ground.</p><br>
<p>The Delaware Bay was designated a Ramsar Wetland of International Importance on May 20, 1992. It was the first site classified in the Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve Network.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>At the time of the arrival of the Europeans in the early 17th century, the area around the bay was inhabited by the Native American Lenape people. They called the Delaware River "Lenape Wihittuck", which means "the rapid stream of the Lenape". The Delaware Bay was called "Poutaxat", which means "near the falls".</p><br>
<p>In 1523 Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón had received from Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor a grant for the land explored in 1521 by Francisco Gordillo and slave trader Captain Pedro de Quejo (de Quexo). In 1525 Ayllón sent Quejo northward and received reports of the coastline from as far north as the Delaware Bay. In 1525 De Ayllon and Captain Quejo called Delaware Bay by the name Saint Christopher&#39;s Bay.</p><br>
<p>In the 1600s the bay was known as "Niew Port May" after Captain Cornelius May.</p><br>
<p>Another recorded European visit to the bay was by Henry Hudson, who claimed it for the Dutch East India Company in 1609. The Dutch called the estuary "Godyns Bay", or "Godins Bay" after a director of the company, Samuel Godijn. As part of the New Netherland colony, the Dutch established several settlements (the most famous being Zwaanendael) on the shores of the bay and explored its coast extensively. The thin nature of the corporate colonys presence in the bay and along what was called the South River (now the Delaware) made it possible for Peter Minuit, the former director of New Netherland, to establish a competing Swedish sponsored settlement, New Sweden in 1638. The resulting dispute with the Dutch colonial authorities in New Amsterdam (New York City) was settled when Petrus Stuyvesant led a Dutch military force into the area in 1655. After the English took title to the New Netherland colony in 1667 at the Treaty of Breda the bay came into their possession and was renamed, by Samuel Argall, the river Delaware&#39;, after the first Governor of Virginia Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr. The Native American tribe living along the bay and river were later called the Delaware by the Europeans due to their location. The USA state also takes its name from the bay and the river.</p><br>
<p>Conflicting crown grants were made to the James, Duke of York and William Penn on the west bank of the bay and river. Settlement grew rapidly, leading Philadelphia, upriver on the Delaware, to become the largest city in North America in the 18th century. Penn viewed access to the Delaware Bay as being so critical to Pennsylvanias survival that he engaged in an eighty-year long legal boundary dispute with the Calvert family to secure it. In 1782 during the American Revolutionary War, Continental Navy Lieutenant Joshua Barney fought with a British squadron within the bay. Barneys force of three sloops defeated a Royal Navy frigate, a sloop-of-war and a Loyalist privateer.</p><br>
<p>The strategic importance of the bay was noticed by the Marquis de Lafayette during the American Revolutionary War, who proposed the use of Pea Patch Island at the head of the bay for a defensive fortification to protect the important ports Philadelphia and New Castle, Delaware. Fort Delaware was later constructed on Pea Patch Island. During the American Civil War it was used as a Union prison camp.</p><br>
<p>In 1855, the United States government systematically undertook the formation of a 26 ft channel 600 ft wide from Philadelphia to deep water in Delaware Bay. The Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899 provided for a 30 ft channel 600 ft wide from Philadelphia to the deep water of the bay.</p><br>
<p>Other names for the bay have been "South Bay" and "Zuyt Baye".</p><br>
<h3>Today</h3><br>
<p>The bay is one of the most important navigational channels in the United States, its second busiest waterway after the Mississippi River. Its lower course forms part of the Intracoastal Waterway. The need for direct navigation around the two capes into the ocean is circumvented by the Cape May Canal and the Lewes and Rehoboth Canal at the north and south capes respectively. The upper bay is connected directly to the north end of Chesapeake Bay by the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal.</p><br>
<p>The bay offers several challenges to mariners: a significant current of up to three knots, which quickly builds a nasty chop when the wind is in opposition; mainly shallow water, with its channel often occupied with ocean-going vessels; and relatively few places to take shelter.</p><br>
